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A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


BY 


RUTH  A.  WARDALL,  M.A. 

HEAD   OF    DEPARTMENT   OF    HOME    ECONOMICS 
STATE    UNIVERSITY   OF   IOWA 


AND 


EDNA  NOBLE  WHITE,  A.B. 

HEAD    OF    DEPARTMENT    OF    HOME    ECONOMICS 
OHIO   STATE    UNIVERSITY 


>:.  :•: 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON  •  NEW  YORK  •  CHICAGO  •  LONDON 


COPYRIGHT,  1914,  BY  RUTH  A.  WARDALL 

AND  EDNA  NOBLE  WHITE 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 

414.7 


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GINN   ANM)  COMPANY  •  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

This  volume  is  intended  to  present  the  subject  of  foods 
in  a  simple,  concise  manner.  The  preparation  of  food 
which  is  suggested  in  the  book  is  in  every  case  an  illus- 
tration of  some  one  or  more  principles  involved  and  pre- 
viously discussed.  The  object  of  this  work  is  not  to  provide 
training  for  a  finished  cook,  for  skill  comes  only  with 
experience  and  practice  ;  neither  is  there  an  attempt  to 
make  a  food  expert.  A  serious  consideration  of  the  subjects 
of  chemistry,  the  physiology  of  digestion,  and  dietetics 
belongs  to  a  university  course.  It  is  hoped  that  the  work 
outlined  will  give  some  knowledge  of  food  materials,  of  the 
effects  of  heat  upon  them,  of  methods  of  manipulation, 
and  of  comparative  cost  of  commercial  and  domestic  prod- 
ucts. The  increased  cost  of  living  makes  especially  desir- 
able a  study  of  food  values  and  the  cost  of  food  from 
different  sources. 

In  schools  where  courses  in  chemistry,  physiology,  and 
physics  are  offered,  there  are  many  opportunities  for  cor- 
relation with  the  food  work,  which  will  at  once  suggest 
themselves  to  the  well-trained  teacher.  The  reference 
lists  at  the  close  of  each  chapter  will  be  found  very  help- 
ful for  classes,  as  well  as  for  clubs  who  use  this  book  as 
a  guide.  The  preparation  of  food  suggested  in  the  text 
could  easily  be  managed  in  the  home  and  results  discussed 
and  compared  later. 


304742 


vi  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

The  food  principles,  or  nutrients,  form  the  basis  of  the 
arrangement  of  the  work,  but  the  cost  of  food  is  especially 
emphasized.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  divide  the 
work  into  separate  lessons,  and  the  subject  matter  may  be 
amplified  or  abbreviated,  according  to  the  need.  Sug- 
gested lists  for  reference  are  given,  and  it  is  hoped  that 
these  will  be  liberally  used,  for  there  has  been  no  attempt 
to  make  this  a  complete  text ;  it  is  intended  only  as  a  guide 
to  the  study  of  the  subject  of  foods.  Questions  and  exer- 
cises are  frequently  suggested  for  the  use  of  the  pupil,  and 
these  should  be  recorded  in  the  notebook. 

Grateful  acknowledgment  should  be  made  to  Professor 
Henry  C.  Sherman  for  suggestions  and  assistance  and 
to  Mr.  A.  D.  Emmett  and  L.  D.  Hall  of  the  Illinois 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  the  use  of  the  photo- 
graphs of  meat  and  the  descriptive  matter  accompanying 

them. 

RUTH  A.  WARDALL 
EDNA  N.  WHITE 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.     FOOD I 

II.  WATER u 

III.  FRUITS  AND  GREEN  VEGETABLES 15 

IV.  PRESERVATION  OF  FRUIT  AND  VEGETABLES   ...  22 
V.  SUGAR 31 

VI.  STARCH 37 

VII.  POTATOES 40 

VIII.  CEREALS  AND  CEREAL  PRODUCTS 43 

IX.  DRIED  LEGUMES 51 

X.  MILK 54 

XI.  EGGS 61 

XII.  CHEESE 65 

XIII.  MEAT 68 

XIV.  FISH  AND  OYSTERS 81 

XV.  GELATIN 87 

XVI.  FATS  AND  OILS.     . 90 

XVII.  FLOUR 94 

XVIII.  FLOUR  MIXTURES 99 

XIX.  BREAD 108 

XX.  FOOD  REQUIREMENTS 120 

XXI.  SELECTION  OF  FOOD 129 

XXII.  SERVING  MEALS 135 

APPENDIX  I 

FOOD  STANDARDS 139 

APPENDIX  II 

RETAIL  CUTS  OF  BEEF 143 

INDEX 171 


vn 


> 

'    •  \   '  . 

>>'•''• 

'  >  I     »     •. 


t>     1 1 

1  •>       » 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

CHAPTER  I 

FOOD 

• 

Food,  as  defined  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  142,  "is  that 
which,  taken  into  the  body,  builds  tissue  or  yields  energy." 
While  the  supply  of  building  material  and  energy  are  two 
important  functions,  there  is  a  third  purpose  served  by 
food  in  the  regulation  of  certain  important  processes  in 
the  body.  Sherman  says  :  '  Upon  the  presence  of  the 
so-called  inorganic  elements  also  depend  such  important 
matters  as  the  alkalinity  or  neutrality  and  coagulability  of 
the  blood,  the  acidity  or  alkalinity  of  the  digestive  juices,  the 
solvent  power  and  osmotic  pressure  of  the  body  fluids,  the 
elasticity  and  irritability  of  muscle  and  nerve.  They  also 
tend  to  protect  the  body  against  harmful  substances  by 
combining  with  them  to  form  compounds  which  are  less 
toxic  or  more  readily  eliminated.  These  latter  functions 
are  perhaps  regulatory  rather  than  structural  and  are  hardly 
suggested  by  the  term  'tissue  building.'  In  order  to  give 
them  proper  prominence  it  may  be  necessary  to  expand 
the  usual  definition  of  the  function  of  food  (that  it  yields 
energy  and  builds  tissue)  into  one  of  three  divisions 

h 

according  to  which  the  functions  of  food  are 

1 .  To  yield  energy. 

2.  To  furnish  building  material. 

3.  To  regulate  body  processes. 


2  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

The  energy  of  the  food  furnishes  power  for  internal 
work,  as  in  respiration,  digestion,  and  other  body  proc- 
esses, as  well  as  for  external  work,  -  -  when  the  muscles 
are  brought  into  activity,  -  -  as  in  running,  digging,  or 
any  other  form  of  exercise.  When  the  energy  of  the 
food  is  changed  into  energy  for  body  use,  heat  is  given 
off  in  somewhat  the  same  way  that  heat  results  when 
the  energy  of  the  coal  is  changed  into  energy  for  the 
engine.  Under  ordinary  conditions  the  heat  resulting 
from  energy  transformation  keeps  the  body  at  a  comfort- 
able temperature,  but  where  a  great  deal  of  energy  is 
needed,  as  in  a  brisk  walk  or  in  active  muscular  work,  the 
amount  of  heat  is  greater  and  frequently  causes  discom- 
fort. In  case  of  little  or  no  exercise  and  a  cold  day, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  transform  energy  for  the  sake  of 
keeping  the  body  warm.  Building  material  must  be  avail- 
able to  the  body,  for  there  is  constant  wear  and  tear  of 
tissues  in  all,  and  development  of  tissue  -  -  or  growth  - 
in  the  young. 

While  foods  present  a  great  variety  in  appearance  and 
flavor,  it  is  found  on  chemical  analysis  that  they  are  made 
up  of  compounds  which  may  be  divided  into  five  general 
groups  :  water,  mineral  matter,  protein,  fat,  and  carbohy- 
drate. All  five  of  these  nutrients  are  found  in  some  foods ; 
usually  one  or  two  are  present  in  much  greater  quantity 
than  the  others,  so  that  we  value  some  foods  for  protein, 
some  for  fat,  carbohydrate,  or  mineral  content.  Eggs  and 
meat  are  valued  especially  for  protein  ;  butter  and  nuts, 
for  fat ;  potatoes  and  rice,  for  carbohydrate  in  the  form 
of  starch.  Flour  is  valued  for  carbohydrate  and  protein  ; 
green  vegetables  and  fresh  fruits,  for  water  and  mineral 


FOOD  3 

matter  ;  cheese,  for  fat  and  protein  ;  and  milk  is  unique 
in  that  it  contains  all  the  nutrients,  or  food  principles. 

Our  foods  are  derived  from  both  the  plant  and  animal 
kingdoms.  All  the  nutrients  are  abundant  in  either  king- 
dom, with  the  exception  of  the  carbohydrates,  which  occur 
mainly  in  plant  foods. 

Protein,  mineral  matter,  and  water  are  frequently  classed 
as  tissue  builders.  Water  and  mineral  matter  are  found 
in  all  the  body  tissues,  and  protein  is  found  principally  in 
muscular  and  glandular  tissues.  Mineral  matter,  in  addi- 
tion to  its  function  of  building  tissue,  plays  an  important 
role  in  the  regulation  of  body  processes,  as  before  stated. 
Fats  and  carbohydrates  yield  energy,  and,  to  a  considerable 
extent,  one  may  take  the  place  of  the  other  for  this  pur- 
pose. While  protein  is  the  only  one  of  the  nutrients 
which  can  build  certain  body  tissues,  it  may  also  serve 
the  function  of  an  energy  yielder. 

The  same  chemical  elements  which  are  found  in  the 
body  are  found  in  the  food  which  is  necessary  to  growth 
and  maintenance  of  life.  The  wise  selection  of  food  is 
based  upon  a  consideration  of  its  composition,  its  ease  and 
completeness  of  digestion,  its  cost,  and  palatability. 

CARBOHYDRATES 

The  carbohydrates  consist  of  a  group  of  substances 
closely  related  chemically,  although  differing  in  appear- 
ance and  taste.  The  well-known  carbohydrates  are  sugars, 
starches,  and  cellulose.  The  carbohydrates  are  found  in 
the  plant  kingdom  with  very  few  exceptions,  such  as  lac- 
tose in  milk  and  glycogen  in  the  body.  Starch  occurs 
more  abundantly  in  vegetables  than  in  fruits,  and  sugar 


4  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

is  found  in  both.  A  woody  substance,  cellulose,  forms  the 
framework  of  the  plant.  Cellulose  is  a  food  for  the  lower 
animals,  but  not  for  man  ;  however,  it  is  commonly  eaten 
by  man,  and  because  of  its  bulk  it  is  an  aid  in  digestion. 
Starch  and  sugar  are  both  valuable  human  foods  ;  they  do 
not  build  the  tissues  of  the  body,  but  they  furnish  energy. 
Since  plant  foods  are  less  expensive  than  animal  foods, 
the  carbohydrates  are  generally  less  expensive  than  proteins 

and  fats. 

FATS 

There  are  many  substances  chemically  related  which 
are  known  as  fats.  Those  which  are  liquids  at  ordinary 
temperatures  are  called  oils.  F'ats,  like  carbohydrates,  yield 
energy  and  are  frequently  stored  in  considerable  quantity 
in  the  body.  Weight  for  weight,  the  fats  yield  two  and 
a  quarter  times  the  energy  that  carbohydrates  or  proteins 
do.  Fats  are  highly  concentrated  foods  and  are  obtained 
from  both  plant  and  animal  sources.  The  common  animal 
sources  are  cream,  butter,  and  fat  of  meat,  and  the  common 
vegetable  fats  are  olive  oil,  cottonseed  oil,  and  the  fat  of 
nuts.  F*at  from  most  sources  is  expensive.  We  use  fats  not 
only  as  food  but  also  as  a  medium  for  cooking. 

PROTEINS 

The  term  '  protein  '  includes  a  group  of  substances 
chemically  related,  and  all  containing  nitrogen,  although 
not  all  substances  containing  nitrogen  are  proteins. 

The  chemistry  of  the  proteins  is  very  difficult  and  will 
not  be  discussed  here.  Some  of  the  well-known  members 
of  the  protein  family  are  gluten  of  wheat,  albumen  of  egg 
and  meat,  casein  of  milk,  legumin  of  peas  and  beans. 


FOOD  5 

Protein  is  derived  from  both  plant  and  animal  sources. 
Some  plant  foods  rich  in  protein  are  wheat,  corn,  oats, 
peas,  beans,  peanuts,  lentils,  and  nuts.  The  animal  sources 
of  proteins  are  meat,  milk,  eggs,  and  cheese.  Plant  foods 
are  cheaper  than  animal  foods,  and  consequently  they  are 
a  cheaper  source  of  protein.  .  • 

Protein,  like  fat  and  carbohydrate,  may  serve  as  a  source 
of  energy  to  the  body,  but  it  differs  from  these  in  that  it 
also  builds  tissue. 

Although  protein  is  very  necessary  in  the  diet,  it  should 
not  be  eaten  in  too  great  quantities,  for  certain  ills  may 
attend  its  excessive  use.  Heavy  eating,  and  particularly 
heavy  eating  of  meat,  may  easily  furnish  more  protein  than 
is  desirable,  and  it  is  believed  that  meat  protein  may  cause 
more  harm  than  other  proteins. 

WATER 

Water  furnishes  the  fluid  necessary  for  the  body  and 
enters  into  the  composition  of  all  the  tissues.  Approxi- 
mately two  thirds  of  the  weight  of  the  body  is  water,  con- 
sequently the  supply  must  be  liberal.  All  foods  contain 
water ;  fruits,  green  vegetables,  and  milk  are  especially 
high  in  water  content,  but  the  body  needs  more  than  occurs 
in  the  food,  and  water  should  be  freely  used  as  a  beverage. 

MINERAL  MATTER 

The  body  contains  several  pounds  of  mineral  matter, 
the  bulk  of  which  is  in  the  bones  and  teeth.  Some  mineral 
salts  are  in  solution  in  the  body  fluids,  and  some  are  found 
in  other  body  tissues.  Mineral  matter  occurs  in  practically 
all  our  foods,  both  animal  and  plant,  but  it  varies  in  amount 


6  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

and  kind.  While  a  freely  chosen,  normal  diet  may  contain 
enough  mineral  matter  to  supply  the  demands  of  the  body, 
it  is  not  always  in  the  form  or  amounts  needed.  Knowledge 
of  the  composition  of  food  leads  physicians  to  prescribe 
certain  diets  for  people  who  show  a  lack  of  some  mineral 
constituent.  Fruit  and  vegetables  are  especially  valued 
for  their  mineral  content.  The  outer  coats  of  the  cereal 
grains,  so  often  discarded,  are  also  rich  in  mineral  matter. 
Care  is  necessary,  especially  with  children,  to  provide  foods 
supplying  mineral  matter. 

PREPARATION  OF  F'OOD 

Some  foods  are  eaten  in  the  natural  (or  raw)  state,  but 
much  of  our  food  is  cooked.  Cooking  means  the  applica- 
tion of  heat  to  food.  It  makes  it  more  attractive  in  appear- 
ance, more  palatable,  and  destroys  any  living  organisms 
which  may  be  present.  In  the  case  of  foods  eaten  in  the 
raw  state,  such  as  lettuce,  celery,  and  fruits,  very  thorough 
cleansing  is  necessary.  One  should  be  accurately  informed 
as  to  the  condition  of  milk  which  is  used  in  the  raw  state, 
for  it  frequently  is  the  carrier  of  disease  germs.  Methods 
of  cooking  and  degree  of  heat  vary  with  the  nature  of  the 
food.  The  temperature  and  method  of  cooking  should 
vary  as  fat,  protein,  or  carbohydrate  predominates  in  the 
food. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

I.  Laboratory  and  Equipment 

Examine  desks,  list  equipment,  and  carefully  note  arrange- 
ment of  utensils  in  the  desk.  If  general  supply  cupboards  are 
used  by  pupils,  examine  and  note  contents. 


FOOD  7 

The  following  abbreviations  are  used  throughout  the  book : 

(J  •          •          •          •          •          •          •          •          •          L  III J 

s.s salt-spoon 

t teaspoon 

T tablespoon 

II.  Measurements 

Compressible  materials,  such  as  flour  and  powdered  sugar, 
should  be  sifted  before  measuring,  and  lightly  filled  into  the 
measure  without  packing.  Heap  all  dry  materials  into  the  meas- 
uring cup  or  spoon,  and  level  with  the  edge  of  a  knife.  Measure 
a  half  spoonful  by  dividing  lengthwise.  A  measure  of  liquid 
means  all  that  the  cup  or  spoon  will  hold. 

1.  Answer  the  following  questions  by  measuring  with  sugar; 
with  flour ;  with  water : 

How  many  t  in  i  T  ?  %       How  many  c  in  i  Ib.  ? 

How  many  T  in  i  c  ?  How  many  c  in  i  pt.  ? 

2.  Repeat  measurements  for  a  check.   Compare  results  with 
others  in  class  and  account  for  differences.    Is  the  measure 
responsible  in  all  cases  ? 

III.  Weights 

1.  Determine,  by  avoirdupois  system,  weight  of 

i  c  flour  i  c  water 

i  c  sugar  i  c  lard 

2.  Compare  weight  of  i  c  of  unsifted  flour  with  i  c  of  flour 
sifted  once,  twice,  and  three  times. 

3.  Compute  weights  of  the  above  in  the  metric  system. 
NOTE,    i  pound  =  453.6  grams:   i  ounce  =  28.36  grams. 

4.  From  above  data  compute  number  of  cups  of  flour,  sugar, 
water,  and  lard  in  i  Ib.  avoirdupois. 


8 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


TEMPERATURES 

Heat  is  always  used  in  cooking  food, 
but  it  may  be  applied  in  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent ways.  Varying  degrees  of  heat  may 
be  employed  in -the  cooking  of  food  by 
using  hot  or  boiling  water,  steam,  hot  fat, 
or  hot  air  in  the  oven. 

THERMOMETER  SCALES 

The   difference  between  freezing  and 
boiling  temperatures  is   marked  by   100 
degrees  on  the  centigrade  scale  and  by 
1 80  degrees  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale.  The 
THE  CENTIGRADE    ratio  between  the  two  scales  is  IOO  :  180, 
AND  FAHRENHEIT    or  5  :  9.    The  freezing  point  is  O°C.  and 
SCALES  32°F.    To  change  from  one  scale  to  the 

other  use  the  following  formulas  : 

|C+32  =  F,      |(F-32)=C. 


-17.78 


DEMONSTRATION  BY  TEACHER 

A.  High  Temperatures 

1.  Note  and  record  room  temperature  by  centigrade  ther- 
mometer. 

2.  Note  and  record  boiling  point  of  water. 

3.  Note  and  record  temperature  of  steam  just  above  boiling 
water. 

4.  Note  and  record  temperature  of  steam  in  a  covered  kettle. 

5.  Note  and  record  temperature  of  water  in  the  covered  top 
of  a  double  boiler  when  the  water  below  is  boiling. 


FOOD  9 

6.  Oven  temperatures. 

By  noting  time  required  to  brown  white  paper,  test  the 
oven  at  the  following  temperatures :   150°;  200°;  250°. 

7.  Fat  temperatures. 

a.  Note  condition  of  a  piece  of  bread  one  minute  after 
it   is  dropped  into   fat  which   is  at   the   temperature  of 
boiling  water. 

b.  Note  temperature  of  fat  in  which  bread  is  browned : 
in  one  minute ;  in  forty  seconds. 

B.  Low  Temperatures 

Low  temperatures  are  used  in  the  household  for  preservation 
of  food  and  in  the  preparation  of  frozen  dishes. 

1 .  What  is  the  temperature  of  ice  ? 

2.  What  is  the  temperature  of  a  mixture  of  ice  and  salt  ? 

3.  Does  the  proportion  of  ice  to  salt  affect  the  temperature 
of  the  mixture  ? 

FUELS 

The  usual  source  of  heat  for  cooking  is  furnished  by 
coal,  wood,  gas,  gasoline,  and  kerosene.  Electricity  is  a 
very  desirable,  but  usually  a  very  expensive,  source.  The 
cost  of  fuel  must  be  considered  a  part  of  the  cost  of 
our  food,  and  should  be  added  to  the  cost  of  raw  food 
materials.  By  planning,  it  is  possible  to  economize  in  our 
use  of  these  fuels.  For  example,  when  the  oven  of  a 
coal  or  wood  range  is  in  use,  the  top  of  the  stove  is  hot 
and  may  also  be  in  use  ;  and  a  gas  burner  need  not  be 
turned  on  full  in  order  to  keep  water  boiling.  If  a  gas 
meter  is  attached  to  a  range,  it  will  be  observed  that  there 
is  quite  a  difference  in  the  gas  consumed  when  the  burner 
is  partially  opened  and  when  it  is  turned  on  to  the  fullest 
extent. 


10  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

Convert  recorded  temperatures  to  Fahrenheit  scale. 

What  is  the  lowest  temperature  in  the  above  demonstration  ? 

When  would  you  use  this  in  cooking? 

When  would  you  use  the  highest  temperature  in  cooking  ? 

Suggest  different  dishes  which  might  be  prepared  at  the  other 
temperatures. 

What  ways  of  applying  heat  to  food  are  suggested  in  the  above 
demonstrations  ?  Which  medium  is  most  commonly  used  ? 

What  is  the  source  of  heat  used  in  preparation  of  food  in  a 
fireless  cooker?  In  what  way  does  the  modern  fireless  cooker  differ 
from  the  old  "  hay-box  "  ?  Is  the  hay-box  or  fireless  cooker  of  any 
service  in  keeping  things  cool  ?  Is  a  fireless  cooker  an  aid  to  economy 
in  fuel  ? 

Suggest  other  ways  of  reducing  cost  of  fuel  in  preparing  food. 

From  the  data  and  experience  that  you  have,  discuss  the  various 
fuels  from  the  viewpoint  of  cost,  desirability,  and  convenience. 

Examine  and  operate  all  stoves  and  other  heating  devices  found  in 
the  laboratory. 

References 

ATWATER.    "  Principles  of  Nutrition  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Food," 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  142,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
HUTCHISON.    Food  and  Dietetics,  chap.  i. 
HOUGH  and  SEDGWICK.    The  Human  Mechanism. 
JORDAN.    Principles  of  Human  Nutrition. 
SHERMAN.    Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition. 
WILEY.    Foods  and  their  Adulteration. 
NORTON.    Food  and  Dietetics. 
ATWATER  and  BRYANT.  "  The  Chemical  Composition  of  American  Food 

Materials,"  Bulletin   No.  28,  Office  of  Experiment   Stations,  U.S. 

Department  of  Agriculture. 
LANGWORTHY.  "Ash    Constituents    of  the    Food,"  Journal  of  Home 

Economics,  February,  1910. 

MURLIN.    Tigerstedt's  Text  Book  of  Physiology. 
HILL.    Recent  Advances  in  Physiology  and  Biochemistry,  chap.  x. 
BEVIER    and    VAN    METER.     Selection   and    Preparation   of   Food  — 

Laboratory  Guide. 


CHAPTER  II 

WATER 

Generally  speaking,  water  is  either  hard  or  soft,  de- 
pending on  the  mineral  substances  which  it  carries  in  solu- 
tion. Rain  water  as  stored  in  the  ordinary  cistern  is  the 
softest  water  available  to  the  household.  Well,  river,  and 
spring  water  vary  greatly  in  the  materials  in  solution,  and 
consequently  vary  greatly  in  degree  of  hardness. 

Boiling  will  sometimes  bring  about  changes  which  tend 
to  soften  water.  Doubtless  all  have  observed  the  lime 
deposit  in  the  teakettle.  Other  causes  of  hardness  can 
be  removed  only  by  the  use  of  chemicals.  Cities  some- 
times use  chemicals  on  a  large  scale  to  soften  water  for  use. 
In  a  small  way  the  same  thing  is  done  in  the  household 
when  baking  soda  is  added  to  the  water  for  cooking  beans, 
or  lye  is  added  to  water  which  is  to  be  used  in  cleaning. 

While  hardness  of  water  is  a  matter  of  importance  to 
the  household,  there  is  another  far  more  important  con- 
sideration. A  safe  water  is  one  which  does  not  contain 
disease  germs  or  any  substances  injurious  to  health.  A 
number  of  diseases  are  carried  by  water  ;  typhoid  fever  and 
dysentery  are  among  the  common  ones.  The  appearance 
of  typhoid  fever  should  lead  to  an  immediate  investigation 
of  water  and  milk  supply.  The  typhoid  fever  record  of  a 
city  is  a  fair  index  of  the  safety  of  its  water.  Water  may 
be  clear  and  sparkling  and  yet  be  very  dangerous.  Surface 
wells  are  very  easily  contaminated  and  there  is  always  risk 

ii 


12  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

in  using  water  from  such  wells.  Deep,  driven  wells  are 
less  liable  to  contamination,  but  their  safety  is  not  assured. 
Generally  speaking,  a  municipal  water  supply  is  preferable 
to  the  ordinary  well,  because  it  is  apt  to  be  more  carefully 
watched.  The  surety  of  a  safe  water  supply  is  a  moral 
obligation  which  all  should  feel.  If  there  is  any  doubt 
about  it,  the  water  should  be  boiled.  The  household  filters 
ordinarily  seen  are  worse  than  useless,  and  often  a  real 
menace  because  they  frequently  become  breeding  places 
for  germs.  Directions  from  a  board  of  health  to  boil  water 
should  never  be  neglected. 

As  said  before,  a  liberal  supply  of  water  is  needed  for  the 
body  fluids  and  to  remove  waste.  Water  is  used  as  a  bever- 
age, either  alone  or  flavored  with  other  substances.  It  is  used 
also  as  an  agent  in  the  preparation  of  food.  Hot  water  is  a 
very  common  medium  for  the  cooking  of  food,  and  in  tea, 
lemonade,  and  other  mixtures,  water  serves  as  a  carrier  of 
flavor. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

WATER  AS  A  MEDIUM  FOR  FOODS  AND  FLAVORS 

I.  Lemonade 

i  lemon  3  T  sugar 

i  c  cold  water  \  c  boiling  water 

Wash  lemon  and  grate  a  small  portion  of  yellow  rind.  Add 
boiling  water  to  sugar  and  grated  rind.  To  this  add  cold  water 
and  juice  of  lemon.  Chill  and  serve. 

II.  Fruit  Punch 

i  c  cold  water  iJT  lemon  juice 

J— Jc  sugar  Jc  chopped  pineapple 

\  c  orange  juice 


WATER  I 3 

Boil  water,  sugar,  and  pineapple  several  minutes ;  cool,  add 
fruit  juice,  strain,  and  dilute  with  ice  water. 

Other  fruit  juices  could  be  substituted  for  any  of  these. 
Lemon  juice  is  necessary  with  almost  any  fruit. 

III.  I^emon  Ice 

2  c  sugar  i  c  lemon  juice 

i  c  boiling  water  3  c  cold  water 

Make  a  sirup  of  sugar  and  hot  water.  Add  the  rest  of  the 
water  and  then  the  fruit  juices. 

For  variation  add  ^  t  vanilla,  juice  of  an  orange,  or  other 
fruit  juice.  Freeze. 

IV.  Sherbet 

To  i  qt.  of  lemon  or  other  ice  add  the  beaten  white  of  i  egg, 
when  the  mixture  begins  to  freeze. 

i  c  freshly  boiling  water 
it  tea 

Scald  the  teapot.  Pour  water  over  the  tea  in  the  teapot.  Let 
tea  stand  2  or  3  minutes  in  a  hot  place,  and  serve.  Never  boil  tea. 

Compare  the  beverages  made  from  green  tea,  from  black  tea, 
and  from  a  mixture  of  the  two. 

VI.    Coffee 

1 .  ic  freshly  boiling  water 

2  T  ground  coffee  mixed  with  i  T  cold  water 

Pour  boiling  water  over  the  moistened  coffee  in  the  coffee- 
pot. Boil  up  once,  simmer  4  or  5  minutes,  and  let  stand  in  a 
hot  place  for  from  5  to  10  minutes. 

2 .  ic  cold  water 

2  T  ground  coffee 

Pour  water  over  coffee  in  the  coffeepot.  Bring  to  boiling 
point,  and  then  simmer  for  2  minutes.  Stand  in  a  hot  place 
for  from  5  to  10  minutes. 


14  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

A  small  amount  of  white  of  egg  may  be  stirred  in  after  the 
coffee  has  boiled,  to  aid  in  settling  the  grounds.  Long  cooking 
of  coffee  not  only  impairs  the  fine  flavor  but  extracts  undesirable 
substances. 

Compare  the  beverages  made  from  coffees  of  different  kinds 
and  grades  as  to  desirability  and  cost. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

Calculate  the  cost  of  a  cup  of  black  coffee ;  the  cost  of  a  cup  of 
coffee  with  sugar  and  cream. 

Determine  source  of  home  and  of  school  water  supply. 

Is  lemonade  a  valuable  food?    Explain. 

Calculate  the  cost  of  a  glass  of  lemonade. 

Why  use  freshly  boiling  water  for  tea  and  coffee? 

Are  tea  and  coffee  valuable  as  foods? 

Are  there  any  objections  to  their  use? 

References 

ELLIOTT.    Household  Hygiene,  pp.  90-113. 
PRICE.    Handbook  on  Sanitation,  chaps,  v,  vi. 
RICHARDS  and  WOODMAN.    Air,  Water,  and  Food,  chaps,  v,  vi. 
SEDGWICK.    Principles  of  Sanitary  Science,  chaps,  ix,  x. 
SHERMAN".    Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition,  chaps,  ix,  x. 
HOUGH  and  SEDGWICK.   The  Human  Mechanism. 
HUTCHISON.   Food  and  Dietetics. 

LANGWORTHY.    "  Cereal  Substitutes  for  Coffee,"  Bulletin  No.  122,  U.S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


CHAPTER  III 

FRUITS  AND  GREEN  VEGETABLES 

FRUITS 

Fruits  are  largely  composed  of  water.  Many  of  the  fresh 
fruits  contain  from  80  to  90  per  cent  of  water.  Dates, 
figs,  and  raisins  are  fruits  from  which  the  water  has  been 
evaporated,  and  consequently  they  are  concentrated  foods. 
Peaches,  apricots,  apples,  and  prunes  are  dried  in  order 
to  preserve  them,  but  the  water  is  restored  when  they  are 
prepared  for  eating,  and  they  resemble  other  cooked  fruits 
in  composition.  The  banana  owes  its  food  value  largely  to 
the  starch  it  contains,  while  a  number  of  fruits,  especially 
grapes  and  pineapples,  are  valued  for  sugar.  The  acids 
and  minerals  occurring  in  fruits  give  them  an  important 
place  in  the  diet.  The  woody  fiber  which  forms  the  frame- 
work of  the  fruit  is  a  carbohydrate  called  cellulose,  which 
adds  bulk  to  the  food  and  stimulates  peristalsis. 

Fruit  is  frequently  valued  as  an  appetizer,  and  the  water 
content  and  bulk  make  it  a  desirable  addition  to  the  diet, 
although  for  actual  nutrients  fruits  are  expensive.  Canned 
fruit  has  a  greater  food  value  due  to  the  addition  of  sugar. 
The  cooking  of  fruit  changes  the  flavor,  cooks  starch  if 
present,  softens  the  cellulose,  and  in  the  case  of  dried  fruits 
restores  the  water  lost.  It  is  important  that  the  juice  be 
served  with  the  cooked  fruit  so  that  the  mineral  salts  may 
not  be  lost. 

15 


U.  8.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 
c.  F.  LANG  WORTHY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


COMPOSITION     OF     FOOD     MATERIALS 


Protein 


Fat 


Carbohydrates  Ash 


Water 


Fuel  Value 
1.  Sq.Tn.  Equals 
1000  Calories 


APPLE 

EDIBLE    PORTION 


Water:  84.6. 


Carbohydrates:  14.2 


Protein:  4.3 


Protein:  0.4 
Fat:  0.5 


Carbohydrates:  74.2 


Fuel 
value: 


Ash:  0.3 


285  calories 
per  pound 


DRIED   FIG 

EDIBLE    PORTION 

/Water:  18.8 


Fat:  0.3 


•Ash:  2.4 


1435  calories 
per  pound 


BANANA 

EDIBLE    PORTION 


STRAWBERRY 

EDIBLE    PORTION 


Water:  00. 


Fat:  0. 
Carbohydrates:  7.4 


Water:  75. 3 


Protein:  1.0 
•Ash:  0.6  Carbohydrates:  22.0 


Fuel 
value: 


175  calories 
per  pound 


Protein:  1.3 


Fat:  0.0 


Fuel 
value: 


•Ash:  0.8 

445  calories 
per  pcund 


FRESH  AND  DRIED  FRUITS 


16 


FRUITS  AND  GREEN  VEGETABLES  I? 

GREEN  VEGETABLES 

Various  parts  of  plants  are  used  as  food.  The  stem  of 
asparagus,  leaves  of  the  spinach,  flower  of  the  cauliflower, 
root  of  the  beet,  fruit  of  beans  and  tomatoes,  are  eaten. 
Many  green  vegetables  are  grown  and  valued  for  their 
variety  in  flavor,  their  bulk,  and  their  mineral  salts.  Green 
vegetables,  like  fruits,  are  conspicuously  high  in  water ; 
lettuce,  cucumbers,  and  celery,  for  example,  are  about 
95  per  cent  water.  Cellulose  forms  the  framework  of  the 
green  vegetables.  Minerals  occur  in  all,  sugar  and  starch 
in  some.  In  cooking  strong-juiced  vegetables,  such  as 
onions  and  cabbage,  a  large  amount  of  water  is  used  ;  and 
in  vegetables  valued  for  sugar  and  other  soluble  materials, 
as  corn,  peas,  carrots,  etc.,  it  is  best  to  use  the  smallest 
amount  of  water  that  is  possible. 

LA li(  >A\-1  TORY  EXERCISES 

I.  Canned  Green  Vegetables 

Open  the  can  and  empty  at  once.  The  flavor  is  usually  im- 
proved by  allowing  the  vegetables  to  stand  for  an  hour  or  more 
exposed  to  the  air. 

The  majority  of  the  canned  green  vegetables  are  palatable 
when  simply  seasoned  with  butter,  pepper,  and  salt,  and  heated  ; 
or  they  may  be  served  with  cream  sauce. 

II.  Baked  Apples 

Select  sound  apples,  preferably  tart  ones.  Wash  and  core, 
place  in  a  shallow  pan,  fill  centers  with  sugar,  or  a  mixture  of 
sugar  and  cinnamon,  cover  the  bottom  of  the  pan  with  water. 
Bake  in  a  moderate  oven  until  apples  are  easily  pierced  with  a 
fork.  If  the  oven  is  very  hot,  cover  with  a  pan  or  baste  apples 
frequently  with  the  sirup  in  bottom  of  pan. 


U.  8-  Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 
C.  F.  LANGWORTHY 

Expert  In  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


COMPOSITION     OF     FOOD     MATERIALS 


Protein 


Fat 


Carbohydrate*  Aeh 


Water 


Fuel  Value 
1.  Sq.In.  Equals 
1000  Calories 


Fuel  yalue: 


295  calories 
per  pound 


ONION 


Wate»:-87.6 
Protein:  L6. 

Carbohydrates:  9.9 


Water:  83.0 

Protein:  1.6 
^  Fat:  0.6 

Carbohydrate*:  13.6 


Fuel 
value: 


I 


Fat:  0.3 
Ash:  0.6 


220  calories 
per  pound 


CELERY 


POTATO 


Protein:  2.2 
Fat:  0.1 


Water:-94. 


Ash:  1.0 


Carbohydrates:  18.4  "Water:  78.3 

Fuel  value: 


Fuel  value! 


C 

375  calories 
per  pound 


Protein:  1.1 
Carbohydrates:  3.4 
Ash:  1.0 


,11111  iimiiuitiiiitiiit 


80  calories 
per  pound 


ROOTS  AND  SUCCULENT  VEGETABLES 


18 


FRUITS  AND  GREEN  VEGETABLES  19 

III.  Stewed  Prunes 

Select  good  prunes,  sort,  and  wash.  Cover  with  water  and 
soak  several  hours  or  overnight  ;  then  slowly  cook  in  the  same 
water  until  plump  and  smooth  and  the  stones  will  easily  slip  out. 
A  little  lemon  juice  or  sugar  may  be  added. 

IV.  Creamed  Onions 

Cook  onions  in  a  large  amount  of  boiling  water  in  an  un- 
covered kettle,  and  change  water  two  or  three  times.  Cook 
until  tender  ;  drain,  and  reheat  in  white  sauce. 

V.  Escaloped  Cabbage 

Cook  cabbage  in  boiling,  salted  water,  changing  water  two 
or  three  times  ;  do  not  overcook.  Arrange  in  baking  dish  alter- 
nate layers  of  cabbage  and  cream  sauce.  Cover  with  buttered 
crumbs  and  brown  in  oven. 


VI.  Glazed  Swtrf  /'<>t<itoes 

Wash  and  pare  potatoes.  Cook  until  partially  done  in  boiling 
water.  Remove  from  water,  cut  potatoes  in  halves  or  slices. 
Brush  with  melted  butter,  sprinkle  with  sugar  lightly,  and  bake. 
Or  make  a  sirup  of  i  T  sugar,  i  T  water,  and  i  T  butter  ;  brush 
potatoes  with  this,  and  baste  with  it  during  the  cooking. 

VII.  Spinach 

Carefully  pick  over  and  wash  spinach  through  several  waters. 
Cover  bottom  of  pan  with  water,  place  spinach  in  pan,  heat 
slowly,  and  cook  until  tender.  Drain,  season  with  butter,  salt, 
and  pepper,  and  garnish  with  slices  of  hard-cooked  egg. 

SALADS 

A  salad  is  a  wholesome  and  a  favorite  way  of  serving 
vegetables,  both  fresh  and  cooked.  Combinations  of  meat, 
eggs,  fruit,  nuts,  and  cheese  with  vegetables  are  frequently 
made  in  salads. 


20  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

The  dressing  is  usually  a  mixture  of  vinegar,  egg,  fat, 
and  seasonings.  The  simplest  of  all  dressings  (the  French 
dressing)  is  made  of  oil,  vinegar,  and  seasonings,  and  is  not 
cooked  ;  a  raw  egg  in  combination  with  the  same  gives  a 
mayonnaise.  Butter  is  more  commonly  used  than  oil  in 
making  dressings,  and  the  mixture  is  cooked. 

As  a  source  of  food  the  salads  vary  greatly,  depending 
entirely  upon  the  materials  put  into  them.  If  properly  used, 
the  salads  are  a  very  desirable  addition  to  the  diet.  With 
a  heavy  meal  a  light  salad,  such  as  celery  or  lettuce,  should 
be  chosen,  and  in  this  case  the  salad  is  an  accessory  to  the 
meal.  The  salad  if  made  of  meat,  egg,  or  cheese  may  really 
be  the  major  part  of  the  meal. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  have  vegetables  or  fruits  fresh, 
crisp,  and  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  meat  carefully  freed  from 
gristle  and  bone.  All  materials,  including  dressing,  should 
be  cold.  Salads  should  be  carefully  mixed  and  served,  in 
order  to  preserve  their  attractiveness. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

I.  French  Salad  Dressing 

3T  oil  i  T  vinegar  or  lemon  juice 

Jt  salt  ^t  paprika 

Mix  salt  and  pepper  with  oil,  add  vinegar  slowly,  and  beat. 

II.  Cream  Dressing 

Yolks  3  eggs  or  2  whole  eggs  1 1  salt 

2  T  flour  1 1  mustard 

i  T  sugar  £c  vinegar 

i  T  butter  Paprika 

Mix  dry  ingredients,  add  vinegar,  and  cook  thoroughly ;  re- 
move from  fire,  add  slightly  beaten  egg  and  butter.  Cool,  and 


FRUITS  AND  GREEN  VEGETABLES  21 

store  in  a  glass  jar  until  ready  for  use.  When  ready  to  serve, 
thin  the  dressing  with  cream,  sweet  or  sour.  Whipped  cream  is 
especially  desirable. 

III.  Vegetable  Salad 

£c  peas  i  small  cucumber 

£c  string  beans  i  tomato 

Carefully  prepare  the  vegetables  and  serve  with  either  French 
or  cream  dressing. 

IV.  Fruit  Salad 

I'se  seasonable  fruits,  either  alone  or  in  combination.  Serve 
on  lettuce  leaf  with  French  or  cream  dressing. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

From  Bulletin  No.  28,  'f  Chemical  Composition  of  American 
Food  Materials,"  and  I'\inners  Bulletin  No.  293,  "  Use  of  Fruit  as 
Food,'1  list  ten  commonly  used  fruits  according  to  water  content ; 
according  to  sugar  content.  Which  are  valued  for  food  and  which  as 
appetizers?  Compare  grapes  and  raisins  with  respect  to  water  and 
sugar  content,  and  explain  difference. 

List  ten  common  green  vegetables  according  to  water  content ; 
protein  content.  What  green  vegetables  contain  sugar? 

References 

LANGWORTHY.    "  Use  of  Fruit  as  Food,"  Farmers1  Bulletin  Aro.  293, 

U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
PARLOA.     '  Preparation  of  Vegetables  for  the  Table,"  Farmers1  Bulletin 

No.  256,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
HUTCHISON.    Food  and  Dietetics. 
SNYDER,    FRISBY,   and    BRYANT.     "  Losses  in   Cooking  Vegetables," 

Bulletin  No.  43,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.S.  Department 

of  Agriculture. 

HOUGH  and  SEDGWICK.    The  Human  Mechanism,  pp.  93,  350. 
BAILEY.    Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture. 


CHAPTER  IV 

•  PRESERVATION  OF  FRUIT  AND  VEGETABLES 

Food  spoils,  due  to  the  action  of  some  form  of  plant  or  ani- 
mal growth.  The  most  common  causes  of  spoiling  are  the 
minute  plants,  always  found  in  the  air,  called  bacteria,  yeasts, 


APPARATUS  FOR  STEAMING  FRUIT  IN  CANS 

and  molds.  A  food,  or  any  other  substance,  is  sterile  when 
all  these  microscopic  forms  of  life  have  been  killed.  Steri- 
lization is  most  frequently  accomplished  by  the  use  of  heat. 
Since  all  dust  is  laden  with  these  minute  forms,  food 
should  not  be  exposed  to  the  air  unnecessarily.  Like  other 


22 


PRESERVATION  OF  FRUIT  23 

plants,  these  microscopic  forms  need  food,  warmth,  and 
moisture.  One  of  the  means  of  protecting  food  is  to  keep 
it  in  a  dry  place,  and  in  some  cases  the  food  is  actually 
dried,  as  raisins  and  dried  apples.  Cold  is  the  commonest 
and  best  means  of  protecting  food,  either  in  the  household 
refrigerator  or  the  commercial  cold-storage  plant. 

Heat,  sugar,  salt,  vinegar,  spices,  and  certain  chemicals 
are  used  in  preserving  food  for  long  periods  of  time.  These 
agents  are  useful  because  they  do  not  favor  animal  and 
plant  growth.  Heat  is  the  most  effective  preservative,  for 
if  high  enough  and  long  enough  applied,  it  will  kill  any 
form  of  life.  Sugar,  vinegar,  and  spices  give  a  desired 
flavor  to  the  food,  as  well  as  aid  in  preserving  it,  if  used 
in  sufficient  quantities.  Frequently  several  of  these  agents 
are  combined.  Canning  powders  may  preserve  food  indefi- 
nitely, but  they  should  never  be  used.  The  Pure  Food 
Laws  are  forbidding  the  use  of  chemicals  by  the  manufac- 
turer, and  the  housewife  should  be  no  less  particular.  Heat, 
if  properly  used,  will  preserve  food  as  well  as  chemicals, 
and  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  safety  of  its  use. 

The  preservation  of  food  has  largely  passed  out  of  the 
modern  household,  excepting  the  canning  and  pickling 
processes,  and,  in  some  localities,  the  curing  of  meat. 

LA  BORA  T(  M' ) '  EXERCISES 
AGENTS  AND  METHODS  OF  PRESERVATION1 

Experiment  I.  Put  portions  of  some  ripe  fruit  (as  peach  or  apple) 
and  vegetables  (as  tomato)  on  small  dishes  and  treat  as  indicated  : 

1.  Expose  at  room  temperature. 

2.  Place  in  refrigerator. 

1  This  group  of  experiments  may  be  demonstrated. 


24  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

3.  Carefully  dry  sample  in  slow  oven.   Leave  exposed  in  room. 

4.  Cover  with  ground  spice. 

5.  Cover  with  sugar. 

6.  Cover  with  salt. 

Examine  samples  at  intervals  and  note  results. 

Experiment  II.    Prepare  duplicate  samples  for  comparison. 

1 .  (a)  Put  slices  of  raw  fruit  into  small  glass  bottles ;  cover 
with  water ;  cork  and  seal. 

(#)  Repeat  with  cooked  fruit. 

2.  Sterilize,  by  boiling,  two  small  glass  bottles  with  corks 
to  fit.  • 

(a)  Fill  one  with  raw  fruit ;  cover  with  water ;  cork  and  seal. 
(//)  Fill  the  other  with  cooked  fruit  at  boiling  temperature ; 
cork  and  seal. 

Examine  samples  at  intervals  and  compare. 

Experiment  III.  Put  slices  of  fruit  in  small  glass  bottles 
and  treat  as  indicated : 

1.  Cover  with. alcohol. 

2.  Cover  with  vinegar. 

3.  Cover  with  sirup  of  5T  sugar  and  2T  water. 
Examine  at  intervals  and  compare. 

All  samples  in  these  experiments  should  be  discarded  on  spoil- 
ing, but  some  will  need  to  be  kept  for  a  long  period. 

In  Experiment  I  note  order  in  which  samples  spoil.  Why  do 
some  keep  indefinitely  ? 

Discuss  the  value  of  sterilization  as  illustrated  in  Experi- 
ment II.  What  is  complete  sterilization,  and  in  which  sample 
is  this  illustrated  ? 

Compare  samples  in  Experiment  III.  Are  all  desirable  ? 
Explain. 

When  would  you  use  any  of  the  above  methods  in  the 
household  ? 


PRESERVATION  OF  FRUIT  25 

CANNING 

Canning  is  largely  a  method  of  preservation  by  heat. 
In  the  canning  of  fruit,  usually  from  one  fourth  to  one  third 
the  weight  of  the  fruit  in  sugar  is  added  to  give  the  desired 
flavor. 

Cans,  lids,  and  rubbers  should  be  thoroughly  washed 
and  rinsed.  Cans  and  lids  should  be  sterilized  by  boiling, 
and  care  should  be  taken  not  to  touch  the  top  of  the  can 
or  the  inside  of  the  .lid  with  fingers  or  cloth.  New  rubbers 


TYPES  OF  FRUIT  JARS 

only  should  be  used,  and  these  should  be  sterilized  with 
boiling  water.  Spoons  and  funnels  used  in  handling  fruit 
should  be  sterilized  in  boiling  water. 

LA  BORA  TOR  Y  EXERCISES 
I.   Canned  Corn 

Use  only  fresh  and  perfect  corn.  Free  from  silk  and  cut  from 
cob,  using  care  not  to  cut  too  closely.  Put  into  kettle,  barely 
cover  with  water,  and  boil  thoroughly.  Fill  jars,  add  1 1  salt  and 
1 1  sugar,  and  set  lids  loosely  on  top.  Place  in  a  covered  steamer, 
steam  i  hour,  and  seal.  After  24  hours  fill  steamer  with  cold 
water  and  heat,  steaming  the  corn  for  an  hour.  Repeat  the 


26  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

steaming  the  third  day.    This  same  method  is  applicable  to 
beans,  peas,  and  other  vegetables. 
Calculate  cost,  and  note  on  each  jar. 

II.   Canned  Peaches 

Prepare  peaches  by  paring  and  dividing  into  halves.  Make  a 
sirup,  using  i  c  sugar  to  2  c  water.  Cook  peaches  in  sirup  until 
tender  and  somewhat  transparent,  put  into  sterilized  jars,  and 


II 


I.  JAR  OF  FANCY  MELBA  PEACHES;  COST,  $i.    II.  FIFTEEN  JARS  OF 
PEACHES  CANNED  IN  LABORATORY;  COST,  $i 

seal.  Invert  jars  at  once  and  leave  until  cool.  By  inverting  the 
jar  an  ill-fitting  top  is  quickly  discovered.  This  same  general 
method  is  applicable  to  other  fruits. 

Keep  a  complete  record  of  cost  of  fruit  and  sugar  used  for 
each  jar.  Note  on  a  gummed  label,  and  paste  on  jar  together 
with  date  and  name. 

III.   Canned  Tomatoes 

Sterilize  cans,  tops,  and  rubbers  as  for  canned  fruit.  Wash 
tomatoes,  scald,  remove  skins  and  hard  green  core.  Cut  into 


PRESERVATION  OF  FRUIT  27 

quarters  and  cook,  without  adding  water,  until  thoroughly  heated 
through  and  boiling.    Fill  jars,  seal,  and  invert. 
Calculate  and  note  cost  on  each  jar. 

PRESERVING 

Preserving  fruit  is  largely  a  method  of  preservation  by 
a  heavy  sugar  solution,  three  fourths  to  equal  weight  of 
sugar  being  used. 

Wash,  rinse,  and  scald  with  boiling  water  the  glasses 
for  preserves.  Cover  fruit  with  melted  paraffin. 

LA  BORA  TOR  Y  EXERCISE 
I.    Grape  Conserve 

i  pint  grapes  £  c  raisins 

i  small  orange 

Pulp  grapes,  cook  until  soft ;  then  put  through  a  colander  and 
add  skins,  orange  pulp,  and  raisins.  To  every  cup  of  this  add  a 
cup  of  sugar  and  cook  until  of  desired  consistency.  Nuts  added 
at  this  time  increase  the  attractiveness  of  the  conserve. 

Calculate  and  record  cost  on  each  glass. 

I  I  1. 1. Y-MAKING 

In  making  jelly,  sugar  is  used  in  large  enough  quantity 
to  act  as  a  preservative. 

Prepare  glasses  as  for  preserves  and  cover  in  same  way. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISE 

I .    Gmpc  Jelly 

Cover  the  bottom  of  an  enameled  kettle  with  water  and  add 
the  grapes,  which  have  been  thoroughly  washed.  Cover,  cook 
slowly,  and  stir  occasionally.  When  simmering  point  is  reached, 
crush  the  fruit  with  a  masher  and  continue  heating  until  thor- 
oughly cooked.  Pour  the  hot  mass  into  a  double  square  of 


28  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

cheesecloth ;  tie  the  corners  together  and  let  the  juice  run  out. 
Do  not  squeeze  the  pulp.  Measure  the  juice,  boil  2  or  3  minutes, 
add  a  three-fourths  measure  of  sugar,  and  boil  until  the  jelly  will 
drop  in  flakes  from  the  spoon.  Pour  into  hot  jelly  glasses  and 
cover  with  melted  paraffin. 

The  same  method  may  be  used  with  any  juicy  fruit. 

Calculate  and  record  cost  on  each  glass. 

PICKLING 

Pickling  is  usually  a  method  of  preserving  by  use  of 
vinegar  and  spices.    Heat  may  or  may  not  be  used. 
Wash,  rinse,  and  scald  jars. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISE 

I.    Cucumber  Pickles 

Place  cucumbers  in  stone  jar,  cover  with  brine  in  proportion 
of  ^-c  salt  to  2  qt.  boiling  water.  Let  stand  24  hours.  Drain 
off  brine,  scald,  and  pour  again  over  cucumbers.  Let  stand  until 
cool,  or  longer  if  necessary.  Drain  off  the  brine  and  pack  pickles 
closely  in  jars. 

i  pint  vinegar  Stick  cinnamon 

Salt  Sugar 

Cloves  Pepper 

Scald  vinegar  with  seasonings,  pour  over  pickles,  and  seal 
jars.  These  seasonings  vary  with  strength  of  vinegar,  spices, 
and  individual  tastes. 

Calculate  and  record  cost  of  pickles  on  each  jar. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

In  order  to  test  the  proper  care  of  all  sorts  of  canned  materials, 
carefully  wrap  and  stand  in  a  dark  place  samples  of  each  kind  of 
fruit  and  vegetable  canned.  Leave  duplicate  samples  exposed  to  full 


PRESERVATION  OF  FRUIT 


29 


light.    After   two  or  three  months  open  and  compare  the  above 
samples  with  each  other,  and  with  commercial  samples. 

Carefully  measure  commercial  products  to  estimate  the  cost  of  one 
quart,  and  compare  with  the  domestic  product  made  in  the  class. 

COMPARISON  OF  DOMESTIC  AND  COMMERCIAL  PRODUCTS 


PRODUCT  EXAMINED 

FLAVOR 

AlM'EAR- 
ANCE 

COST  i-EK  QUART 

REMARKS 

(Suggest 
reasons  for 
differences) 

IN 

SEASON 

AT  TIME  OK 
CANNING 

Corn 

/  Cheap 
Commercial  < 
[_  Expensive 

Domestic  Product 

Tomatoes 

Commercials 
^  Expensive 

Domestic  Product 

Peaches 

Commercial  -1 
^  Expensive 

Domestic  Product 

Jelly 

.     /Cheap 
Commercials 
^  Expensive 

Domestic  Product 

Pickles  (Cucumber) 

.  [  Bottled 
Commercial^ 
^  Bulk 

Domestic  Product 

• 

* 

i  bu.  peaches  =  48  Ib. 


i  bu.  tomatoes  =  56  Ib. 


What  is  a  reasonable  price  to  pay  for  peaches  for  canning?  for 
tomatoes  ? 

What  factors  enter  into  the  cost  of  the  commercial  product,  which 
are  not  usually  counted  in  the  domestic  product? 


30  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

• 

References 

CONN.    Bacteria,  Yeasts,  and  Molds  in  the  Home. 

PRICE.    Handbook  on  Sanitation. 

PARLOA.    "  Canned  Fruits,  Preserves,  and  Jellies,"  Farmers*  Bulletin 

No.  203,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
BREAZEALE.    "Canning  Vegetables  in  the  Home,"  Farmers'  Bulletin 

No.  359,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
GOLDTHWAITE.     "  Principles  of  Jelly  Making,"   University  of  Illinois 

Bulletin,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  7. 

GOLDTHWAITE.    "Jelly  Making,"  The  Joiirnal  of  Home  Economics,  Feb- 
ruary, 1910. 
ABEL.   "Care  of  Food  in  the  Home,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  375,  U.S. 

Department  of  Agriculture. 
SNOW.    "  Effect   of    Sugar   and    Temperature    on    Fruit   Juices,"    The 

Journal  of  Home  Economics,  June,  1909. 
HOFFMAN   and   EVANS.    "  The  Preservative  Action  of  Spices,"    The 

Jojtrnal  of  Home  Economics,  December,  1911. 


CHAPTER  V 

SUGAR 

There  are  several  kinds  of  sugars.  The  common  com- 
mercial sugars  are  granulated,  powdered,'  light  and  dark 
brown,  maple,  and  glucose.  The  commercial  names  do 
not  indicate  their  chemical  composition  -  -  chemically  pure 
powdered,  granulated,  and  maple  sugars  are  identical.  Com- 
mercial maple  sugar  contains  flavoring  materials  which  make 
it  very  desirable  for  some  purposes.  There  are  a  number  of 
chemically  different  sugars,  which  are  of  interest  to  the  phys- 
iologist, but  in  the  household  we  are  principally  concerned 
with  granulated  (cane)  sugar  and  grape  sugar  (dextrose). 

Granulated  sugar  is  obtained  commercially  from  the  sugar 
cane  and  the  sugar  beet.  Contrary  to  popular  notions,  the 
sugar  is  the  same  from  both  sources.  Differences  which 
have  been  noted  in  granulated  sugars  are  probably  due  to 
the  degree  of  purification  in  their  manufacture.  Cane 
sugar  is  found  in  fruits  and  other  vegetables,  but  in  lesser 
quantities  than  in  the  sugar  cane  and  beet.  Grape  sugar 
occurs  in  honey,  fresh  and  dried  fruits,  and  may  be  seen  in 
small  whitish  lumps  on  raisins  and  prunes.  The  starches 
and  sugars  are  easily  changed  to  grape  sugar  by  the  action 
of  heat  and  acid  outside  the  body  and  by  digestive  fluids 
in  the  body. 

The  commercial  sirup  (glucose  or  corn  sirup)  is  prepared 
from  starch,  and  contains  from  34  to  36  per  cent  of  grape 
sugar.  When  cream  of  tartar,  vinegar,  or  lemon  juice  is 

31 


U.  8.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 

c.  F.  LANGWOKTHY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


Protein 


COMPOSITION     OF     FOOD     MATERIALS 

Water 


Fat  Carbohydrates  Ash 


Fuel  Value: 

1.  Bq.In.  Equals 

1000  Calories 


SUGAR 

GRA  NULATED 


MOLASSES 


Protein:  2.4 


Carbohydrates:  100.0 


1810  calories 
per  pound 


Carbohydrates:  69.3 


STICK  CANDY 

s  Carbohydrates:  9G.5 


Water:  26.1 


Ash:  3.2 


1300  calories 
per  pound 


Ash:  0.5 


Water.  3.0 


Fuel  Value: 


MAPLE   SUGAR 


1745  calories 
per  pound 


Ash:  0.9 


HONEY 


Water:  16.3 


Carbohydrates:  82.8 


Water:  18.2 

Protein:  0.4 


Carbohydrates:  81.2 


1.100  calories  per  pound 


Fuel  Value:    ^ Ash:  0.2 


1175  calories  per  pound 


SUGAR  AND  SIMILAR  FOODS 


SUGAR  33 

added  to  taffy,  a  portion  of  the  cane  sugar  is  changed  to  grape 
sugar.  Cane  sugar  easily  granulates,  while  grape  sugar  does 
not ;  so  in  the  making  of  candy  it  is  desirable  to  have  glucose, 
to  prevent  the  coarse  granulation,  or  "  turning  to  sugar." 

The  sugars  are  valuable  as  food.  They  are  easily  dis- 
solved, do  not  require  cooking,  give  a  pleasant  flavor  to 
other  foods,  and,  eaten  in  moderation,  are  valuable  to  the 
body  as  a  source  of  energy.  The  sweet  flavor  of  sugar 
is  universally  liked,  and  frequently  it  is  used  in  too  great 
quantities,  particularly  in  the  form  of  candy,  and  with  tea, 
coffee,  and  cereals.  The  overeating  of  sugar  may  cause 
fermentation  in  the  stomach. 

Cane  sugar  is  the  form  most  commonly  used,  but  the 
grape  sugar  is  eaten  in  large  quantities  in  honey,  corn 
sirups,  candy,  and  fruits.  Grape  sugar  is  wholesome  as  a 
food,  and  occurs  in  the  body  as  a  result  of  the  digestion  of 
starches  and  sugars.  Glucose  is  produced  more  cheaply 
than  cane  sugar,  and  the  chief  objection  to  its  use  in  com- 
mercially prepared  food  is  its  substitution  for  the  more 
expensive  products  without  a  reduction  in  the  price  of  the 
finished  article.  Glucose  is  more  familiar  to  us  in  the  form 
of  sirup  than  as  a  dry  sugar,  and  is  not  so  sweet  as  cane 
sugar.  Under  the  Pure  Food  Laws,  the  sirup  glucose  is 
called  corn  sirup-  -a  concession  to  the  popular  prejudice 
against  glucose. 

Lactose  (milk  sugar)  is  prepared  commercially  and  is  fre- 
quently used  in  infants'  food.  Lactose  is  still  less  sweet  than 
grape  sugar.  Molasses  is  another  familiar  form  of  sugar  in 
the  household.  It  contains  both  cane  sugar  and  grape  sugar 
and  a  number  of  coloring  and  flavoring  substances  which 
exist  in  the  raw  materials  from  which  the  sugar  is  made. 


34  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

I.  Effect  of  Heat  upon  Cane  Sugar1 

1 .  Put  £  c  sugar  in  a  small  frying  pan,  heat  gently,  and  stir 
constantly  until  sugar  is  melted.   Quickly  remove  a  small  portion 
to  a  plate  and  examine  the  product,  which  is  known  as  barley 
sugar.   Continue  the  heating  until  the  whole  mass  is  light  brown 
in  color.    Remove  a  small  portion  of  this  product  (caramel)  to 
a  plate  and  compare  with  barley  sugar.   To  the  caramel  in  pan 
add  £  c  boiling  water  and  boil  to  a  sirup.   This  caramel  may  be 
saved  and  used  for  flavoring  custards  and  sauces. 

2.  To  ic  sugar  add  -j-c  water.    Place  in  a  small  pan.    Boil, 
and  with  constant  use  of  the  thermometer  discover  the  temper- 
ature for  the  following  tests  which  are  in  constant  use : 

a.  When  sirup  will  form  a  soft  ball  in  cold  water. 

b.  When  sirup  will  form  a  thread  as  it  is  dropped  from  spoon. 

c.  When  sirup  will  form  a  hard  ball  in  cold  water. 

d.  When  sirup  will  harden  in  cold  water  and  crack  on  cooling 

(crack  stage). 

e.  When  caramel  is  formed. 

Remove  a  portion  to  a  small  dish  at  each  stage  of  the  heating. 
Compare  products  and  suggest  uses. 

II.  Peanut  Brittle 

Place  -J-  c  sugar  in  small  frying  pan,  heat  slowly,  stirring  con- 
stantly, until  sugar  is  melted  and  light  brown  in  color.  Stir  in 
2  T  chopped  peanuts  and  pour  at  once  onto  a  buttered  plate. 

III.  Fondant 

Add  \  c  sugar  to  -J  c  hot  water,  stir  until  dissolved,  then 
add  T^t  cream  of  tartar  and  boil  to  soft  ball  stage.  During 
cooking  remove  all  crystals  from  the  sides  of  the  pan  by  washing 

1  This  may  be  demonstrated  by  the  teacher. 


SUGAR  35 

with  a  wet  cloth  wrapped  around  a  fork.  Pour  onto  a  cold  plate, 
cool,  flavor,  then  beat  with  a  spoon  until  it  stiffens  and  can  be 
molded  with  the  hands.  Handle  the  mass  until  it  is  soft  and 
creamy.  This  may  be  molded  into  candies  at  once  or  it  may  be 
covered  closely  and  allowed  to  stand  for  24  hours. 

IV.  Chocolate  Creams 

Mold  fondant  into  desired  shapes,  and  when  firm  place  on  tip 
of  fork  and  dip  into  the  melted  chocolate. 

(Irate  or  scrape  chocolate  into  a  cup  or  bowl  and  place  the 
bowl  in  warm,  not  hot,  water.  Be  very  careful  not  to  overheat 
or  the  chocolate  will  thicken. 

Place  dipped  creams  on  oiled  paper  and  cool  at  once. 

V.  Molasses  Taffy 

• 

^c  molasses  ic  sugar 

i  T  butter  ^c  boilin    water 

i  T  vinegar  ^t  soda 
vanilla 


Mix  all  the  ingredients  except  the  soda  and  cook  until  brittle 
when  tried  in  cold  water.  Add  soda  and  pour  onto  a  buttered 
pan.  When  cool  enough  to  handle,  add  vanilla  and  pull  candy 
until  light.  Pull  out  into  a  long  rope  and  cut  with  scissors. 

VI.  Butterscotch 

i  c  sugar  Flavoring 

-Jc  water  ^t  cream  of  tartar 

i  T  butter 

Boil  together  sugar,  water,  and  cream  of  tartar  until  the  color 
changes  to  a  light  brown.  Remove  from  fire,  stir  in  butter  and 
flavoring.  Boil  up  again  and  pour,  in  a  very  thin  layer,  onto  a 
buttered  pan.  Mark  into  squares  before  the  candy  hardens. 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


GENERAL  EXERCISES 
COMPARISON  OF  COMMERCIAL  AND  DOMESTIC  PRODUCTS 


APPEARANCE 

COST 

FLAVOR 

REMARKS 

Peanut  Brittle 
Commercial 
Domestic 

Chocolate  Creams 
Commercial 
Domestic 

X 

Butterscotch 
Commercial 
Domestic 

Taffy 
Commercial 
Domestic 

• 

Why  is  cream  of  tartar  added  to  fondant?  Is  this  absolutely 
necessary?  Why  is  the  flavoring  not  added  at  the  beginning  of 
the  cooking  process?  What  are  the  objections  to  cheap  candies? 

Table  sirup  made  from  granulated  sugar  in  the  household  fre- 
quently turns  to  sugar  on  standing.  Can  you  suggest  any  way  to 
avoid  this?  Illustrate  with  an  example. 

Examine  the  samples  of  different  sugars  and  note  characteristics. 

References 

REMSEN.    Organic  Chemistry,  chap.  xi. 

ABEL.  "  Sugar  as  Food,"  Farmers''  Bulletin  No.  93,  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

LEACH.    Food  Inspection  and  Analysis. 

WILEY.    Foods  and  their  Adulterations. 

JORDAN.    Principles  of  Human  Nutrition. 

SHAW.  "  Cane  and  Beet  Sugar  for  Canning  and  Jelly  Making,"  Bul- 
letin yV0.jj,  California  Experiment  Station, 


CHAPTER  VI 

STARCH 

Starch  is  the  form  in  which  plants  commonly  store  food. 
Starch  occurs  in  the  form  of  grains,  which  are  closely  packed 
in  the  plant  cell.  These  grains  vary  in  different  plants,  and 
microscopic  examination  of  the  starch  grain  usually  tells  at 
once  the  kind  of  plant  from  which  it  comes.  Corn  is  the 
common  commercial  source  of  starch,  both  for  laundry  and 
for  table  use.  Starch  is  also  prepared  from  wheat  and 
potatoes.  Less  usual  forms  of  starch  are  tapioca,  sago, 
and  arrowroot. 

Starch  is  a  valuable  food  and  a  cheaper  form  of  carbo- 
hydrate than  sugar.  Its  use  in  the  body  is  the  same  as  that 
of  sugar ;  it  yields  energy  for  work  and  keeps  the  body 
warm.  In  the  process  of  digestion  starch  is  made  soluble, 
finally  being  reduced  to  grape  sugar,  in  which  form  it 
circulates  through  the  animal  body.  Carbohydrate  may  be 
stored  in  very  small  quantities  in  animals  and  exists  in  the 
form  of  glycogen,  sometimes  called  animal  starch.  Dry 
starch  when  heated  changes  its  color  and  flavor  and  is 
converted  into  a  form  of  carbohydrate  called  dextrin.  This 
substance  is  familiar  in  toast  and  in  browned  flour  used  in 
making  gravy.  Starch,  unlike  sugar,  is  not  soluble  in  cold 
water.  Starch  heated  with  water  swells,  changes  its  flavor 
and  appearance,  thickens,  and  forms  a  translucent  mass. 
Raw  or  undercooked  starch  has  an  unpleasant  flavor,  so 

37 


38  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

all  starchy  food  should  be  thoroughly  cooked  and  should 
reach  the  boiling  point  some  time  during  the  cooking 
process.  The  thickening  power  of  starch  makes  it  desir- 
able in  the  preparation  of  many  dishes,  such  as  puddings, 
sauces,  and  gravies.  It  is  necessary  to  use  a  little  care  in 
cooking  starch  to  avoid  lumping.  Starch,  if  first  mixed 
with  something  else,  as  sugar,  cold  water,  or  fat,  does  not 
lump  when  a  hot  liquid  is  stirred  into  it.  When  iodine  is 
added  to  starch,  it  turns  blue.  This  is  a  simple  and  reliable 
test  for  detecting  starch. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
I.    Cornstarch  Puddin 


fruit  juice  f  c  water 

2  or  3  cloves  Sugar  to  taste 

\  t  salt  2  T  cornstarch 

Heat  water  and  juice.  When  boiling,  stir  in  the  cornstarch 
which  has  been  mixed  with  a  little  cold  water.  Stir  over  the 
direct  flame  until  it  thickens,  and  add  cloves  and  sugar.  Cook 
\  hour  in  a  double  boiler  ;  then  pour  into  molds  to  cool.  Fruit 
or  nuts  may  be  added  at  this  time. 

Chill  and  serve  plain  with  fruit  or  with  cream. 

Strong  flavored  fruits,  as  plums  or  grapes,  should  be  used. 

Calculate  number  of  servings  and  cost. 

II.    White  Sauce 

1  c  milk  2  T  flour 

2  T  butter  Salt  and  pepper 

Soften  or  melt  butter  in  pan,  add  flour,  and  mix  thoroughly. 
Remove  pan  from  fire  and  very  gradually  add  the  milk,  stirring 
constantly  to  avoid  formation  of  lumps.  After  these  are  mixed, 
return  to  fire  and  boil  the  sauce  thoroughly.  Add  pepper  and  salt. 


STARCH  39 

III.    Cream  Toast 

Prepare  two  slices  of  toast,  and  dip  each  into  hot  white  sauce. 
Place  on  a  heated  plate  and  pour  the  remainder  of  the  sauce 
over  them. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

Test  several  foods  for  starch. 

Make  a  microscopic  examination  of  starches  from  different  sources. 

Is  there  any  difference  in  the  thickening  power  of  white  and 
browned  or  dextrinized  flour?  Explain. 

Compare  value  of  cornstarch  and  flour  as  thickening  agents. 
Explain. 

Will  cost  lead  to  a  choice  between  them  ? 

References 

See  list  for  Chapter  V. 

WILEY.    "Cereals  and   Cereal   Products,"   bulletin    No.  /j,   Part  IX, 
Division  of  Chemistry,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


CHAPTER  VII 

POTATOES 

The  potato  is  a  commonly  used  vegetable.  It  is  a  tuber, 
or  underground  stem,  in  which  the  plant  stores  a  large 
amount  of  starch,  and  so  is  a  good  source  of  food.  New 
potatoes,  if  ripe,  are  more  palatable  than  old  potatoes. 
When  potatoes  are  old  and  begin  to  sprout,  they  become 
waxy  on  cooking  and  are  not  so  choice.  This  is  due  to  a 
certain  change  in  composition.  The  potato  is  composed  of 
water  (75  per  cent),  cellulose,  starch,  mineral  salts,  and  a 
small  amount  of  protein.  We  value  the  potato  for  its  starch 
and  the  bulkiness  of  its  cellulose.  The  mineral  salts  lie 
very  close  to  the  skin,  and  a  thick  peeling  may  easily 
remove  a  large  part.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  overcook 
potatoes.  They  are  mealy  if  properly  cooked,  but  soggy 
if  overcooked  or  not  thoroughly  drained  and  dried. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

I.  Cut  a  very  thin  slice  through  the  center  of  a  potato,  hold 

up  to  the  light,  and  observe  the  structure.  Add  a  drop  of 
weak  iodine  solution  and  observe  again. 

II.  Remove  skin  from  a  potato  and  grate  about  one  third  of 

the  potato.  Let  this  stand  two  or  three  minutes  on  a  plate 
which  is  placed  on  a  slant.  What  is  the  bulky  portion? 
Pour  liquid  off  from  the  lower  edge.  What  remains  ? 

40 


POTATOES  41 

III.  Boil  one  potato  with  the  skin  on,  and  one  potato  which  has 
been  pared.   After  the  water  used  in  cooking  the  two  pota- 
toes has  been  cooled,  test  it  with  iodine. 

Compare  the  two  potatoes  as  to  appearance  and  flavor. 

IV.  Prepare  two  potatoes  of  uniform  size  for  baking.    Put  one 
into  the  oven  20  minutes  after  the  other.    Remove  both 
when  second  potato  is  properly  cooked. 

Compare  the  properly  cooked  and  the  overcooked  potato. 
Why  are  you  often  directed  to  pierce  skin  of  baked  potato 
when  it  is  done  ? 

V.  Boiled  Potatoes 

Select  potatoes  of  uniform  size.  Clean  and  pare,  or  not,  as 
desired.  Cook  in  boiling,  salted  water  until  easily  pierced  with 
a  fork.  Drain  off  water  and  shake  the  pan  over  the  fire  until 
potatoes  are  thoroughly  dried. 

VI.  Creamed  Potatoes 

Use  diced  boiled  potatoes.  Prepare  a  white  sauce  of  the 
desired  consistency,  and  add  salt  and  pepper.  Turn  the  potatoes 
into  this,  and  with  as  little  stirring  as  possible  heat  potatoes 
thoroughly. 

VII.  Mashed  Potatoes 

2  boiled  potatoes  Salt 

Milk  or  cream  Butter 

Potatoes  for  mashing  should  be  pared  before  cooking.  Mash 
potatoes,  and  add  butter  and  salt.  Mix  thoroughly  and  add  milk, 
beating  vigorously.  Pile  lightly  in  a  hot  dish  and  serve. 

Why  is  the  amount  of  milk  and  seasoning  not  given  in  this 
direction  ? 

VIII.  Potatoes  au  Gratin 

Put  a  layer  of  diced,  cold  boiled  potatoes  in  a  baking  dish. 
Sprinkle  with  grated  cheese  and  diced  pimentos.  Cover  with 


42  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

• 

white   sauce.    Repeat  until  dish  is  full.    Cover  with  buttered 
crumbs  and  bake  until  well  browned. 

Buttered  crumbs.  Melt  i  T  butter  in  pan,  add  4  or  5  T  bread 
crumbs,  and  mix  thoroughly. 

IX.  Escaloped  Potatoes 

Put  alternate  layers  of  sliced,  hard-cooked  eggs  and  cold, 
boiled  potatoes  in  a  greased  baking  dish.  Cover  each  layer  with 
white  sauce.  Put  buttered  crumbs  on  top  and  bake  until  brown. 

X.  Potato  Salad 

Use  only  potatoes  which  have  been  thoroughly  cooled  after 

i  c  diced  potatoes  i  hard-cooked  egg 

^c  diced  celery  Dressing 

The  flavor  of  the  salad  may  be  changed  by  adding  a  little 
onion,  pimento,  or  green  pepper.  A  potato  salad  should  be 
carefully  and  lightly  mixed,  and  not  stirred  and  mashed  together 
with  a  spoon.  Enough  dressing  should  be  used  to  coat  and 
flavor  the  whole  salad.  It  is  better  if  it  stands  at  least  half  an 
hour.  Serve  on  a  crisp  lettuce  leaf. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

For  a  family  of  six  compare  the  cost  of  a  dish  of  boiled  potatoes 
when  they  cost  90  cents  a  bushel  and  when  they  cost  $2.50  a  bushel. 

What  would  be  the  cost  of  a  dish  of  boiled  rice,  hominy,  or  mush 
for  the  same  family  ? 

Is  one  of  these  a  reasonable  substitute  for  one  of  the  others? 

References 

LANGWORTHY.  "  Potatoes  and  Other  Root  Crops  as  Food,"  Farmers* 
Bulletin  No.  295,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

SNYDER,  FRISBY,  and  BRYANT.  "Composition  and  Digestibility  of 
Potatoes  and  Eggs,"  Bulletin  No.  #j,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

^HUTCHISON.    Food  and  Dietetics. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CEREALS  AND  CEREAL  PRODUCTS 

The  cereals,  and  the  preparations  from  them,  furnish 
foods  high  in  starch.  Some  fruits  and  vegetables  contain 
starch,  but  in  smaller  proportions.  The  potato,  a  very 
starchy  vegetable,  is  considered  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

The  cereals  -  -  wheat,  oats,  corn,  rice,  barley,  rye,  millet, 
and  buckwheat-  -store  a  large  amount  of  starch  in  their 
seeds.  In  some  cases  these  seeds,  or  grains,  are  used  whole, 
and  in  others  they  are  crushed,  rolled,  or  ground  into  meal 
or  flour.  In  addition  to  starch,  which  averages  65  per  cent 
to  70  per  cent,  the  cereals  contain  10  per  cent  to  1 2  per  cent 
each  of  protein  and  water,  and,  with  the  exception  of  oats 
and  corn,  very  little  fat.  The  mineral  matter  in  cereals  adds 
greatly  to  their  food  value.  In  milling  the  grains,  the  outer 
layers  and  germs  of  the  grain  are  frequently  discarded  and 
so  the  greater  part  of  the  ash  is  lost.  The  loss  of  total 
mineral  matter  in  milling  may  be  shown  in  the  case  of 
wheat ;  the  whole  grain  contains  2  per  cent  ash,  the  bran 
about  6  per  cent,  and  the  white  flour  about  ^  per  cent. 

A  list  of  the  so-called  breakfast  cereals  found  on  the 
market  will  quickly  reveal  the  fact  that  there  is  a  large 
number  of  commercial  products  made  from  this  group  of 
foods.  When  the  cereals  are  put  up  in  fancy  boxes  and 
under  special  names  there  is  an  increase  in  the  price  not 
always  warranted. 

43 


44  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

From  corn,  starch  is  prepared  on  a  commercial  scale  and 
sold  as  cornstarch.  Corn  meal  is  a  staple  article  of  food, 
and  hominy  is  another  familiar  preparation  from  corn. 
Wheat  in  the  form  of  flour  for  bread  and  cake  is  very 
extensively 'used.  Macaroni  and  spaghetti  are  pastes  made 
of  coarsely  ground  wheat  (called  semolina)  and  water. 

While  the  cereals  are  high  in  starch,  which  is  desirable 
for  its  nutritive  value,  they  also  contain  the  bulky  cellulose, 


5  6  -7 

TEN  CENTS'  WORTH  OF  EIGHT  WELL-KNOWN  BREAKFAST  FOODS 

i,  Grape  Nuts;  2,  Puffed  Rice;  3,  Shredded  Wheat  Biscuit;  4,  Corn  Flakes; 
5,  Cream  of  Wheat ;  6,  Rice  ;  7,  Oatmeal ;  8,  Corn  Meal 

which  serves  its  purpose  in  the  body  by  aiding  in  peristalsis. 
In  cooking  cereals,  starch  and  cellulose  are  to  be  specially 
considered.  For  the  sake  of  flavor  starch  should  be  thor- 
oughly cooked,  reaching  the  boiling  point  at  some  time 
during  the  process.  The  cellulose,  surrounding  the  starchy 
grains,  must  be  softened  so  that  the  digestive  juices  may 
more  easily  penetrate  the  mass.  The  greater  the  amount 
of  cellulose  and  the  larger  the  particles  of  the  grain,  the 
longer  must  the  cooking  be  continued.  Cracked  or  rolled 


CEREALS  AND  CEREAL  PRODUCTS  45 

oats,  for  instance,  are  more  quickly  cooked  than  the  whole 
grain.  Rice  contains  less  cellulose  along  with  the  starch  ; 
consequently  it  is  more  quickly  cooked. 

The  cereals  form  a  large  part  of  the  food  of  people  in 
the  greater  part  of  the  world.  They  are  easily  grown  and 
stored,  and  being  high  in  all  the  nutrients  but  fat,  they 
furnish  one  of  the  cheapest  sources  of  food.  The  corn  of 
the  American  Indian  and  the  oatmeal  of  the  Scotch  High- 
lander furnish  a  much  more  complete  food  than  the  rice 
of  the  oriental,  due  to  the  fact  that  rice  furnishes  practically 
no  protein  or  fat.  The  rice-eating  people  use  fish  and  beans 
to  supply  fat  and  protein  in  their  diet.  The  common  custom 
of  using  butter  with  bread,  eggs  and  milk  with  rice  is  easily 
justified  on  the  ground  of  composition  of  wheat  and  rice. 

LA  BORA  TORY  EXERCISES 
I.  Boiled  A'/'tr 


1.  £c  rice  2C  boiling  water 
£t  salt 

Wash  rice  and  add  to  20  rapidly  boiling  water  in  which 
salt  has  been  dissolved.  Keep  up  the  rapid  boiling  until  the 
rice  is  tender,  replacing  the  water  lost  by  evaporation,  if  needed. 
Turn  water  and  rice  into  a  strainer,  drain,  and  set  in  the  oven 
to  dry  slightly. 

Note  time  of  cooking  ;  bulk  before  and  after  cooking. 

Continue  boiling  the  water  in  which  rice  was  cooked  until  its 
volume  is  reduced  about  one  half.  Explain. 

2.  ^c  rice  f  c  boiling  water 
it  salt 

Wash  rice,  add  to  boiling  salted  water,  and  cook  3  or  4  min- 
utes. Finish  cooking  in  a  double  boiler  and  avoid  stirring  the  rice. 
Compare  with  rice  from  No.  i,  as  to  appearance  and  flavor. 


46  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

Note  time  of  cooking ;  bulk  before  and  after  cooking. 
When  would  you  use  these  different  methods,  and  why  ? 

II.  Escaloped  Rice 

Put  a  layer  of  cooked  rice  in  a  buttered  baking  dish ;  cover 
with  a  layer  of  grated  cheese  and  white  sauce.  Repeat  until 
dish  is  filled.  Cover  with  buttered  crumbs  and  brown  in  oven. 

Macaroni  may  be  prepared  in  a  similar  way. 

III.  Rice  Pudding 

4C  milk  -Jc  sugar 

rice  ^-t  salt 

seeded  raisins,  if  desired 

Mix  ingredients  in  a  baking  dish  and  cook  in  a  very  slow 
oven  for  from  4  to  5  hours.  It  will  be  necessary  to  stir  occasion- 
ally to  prevent  rice  and  raisins  from  settling  to  bottom  of  dish. 
If  raisins  are  not  used,  some  flavoring  should  be  added. 

Calculate  cost  of  this  pudding,  and  the  number  of  people  it 
will  serve. 

IV.  Boiled  Macaroni 

Macaroni  Boiling  water 

Salt 

Break  macaroni  into  inch  lengths  and  cook  in  rapidly  boiling 
salted  water  until  tender.  Drain. 

V.  Macaroni  with  Tomato  Sauce 

1  c  tomato  juice  it  salt 

2  T  flour  TV  t  pepper 
2  T  butter                                     i— J-t  sugar 

i  slice  onion 

Melt  butter ;  mix  thoroughly  with  flour.  Remove  from  fire ; 
gradually  add  tomato  juice,  stirring  constantly.  Add  seasonings. 
Boil  sauce  until  it  thickens  and  remove  onion. 


CEREALS  AND  CEREAL  PRODUCTS  47 

Place  alternate  layers  of  boiled  macaroni  and  tomato  sauce  in 
a  buttered  baking  dish.  Cover  top  with  buttered  crumbs.  Bake 
until  the  whole  is  heated  through  and  crumbs  are  browned. 

Rice  may  be  prepared  in  a  similar  way. 

BREAKFAST  CEREALS 

In  cereals  the  starch  and  cellulose  are  both  improved  by 
long  cooking.  A  fireless  cooker  may  well  be  used  after  the 
cereal  has  been  thoroughly  boiled.  It  is  economical  because 
it  saves  the  time  of  watching  and  the  fuel  for  cooking.  An 
undercooked  cereal  is  poor  in  flavor,  and  breakfast  cereals 
are  so  frequently  undercooked  that  many  people  do  not 
care  for  them  and  will  not  eat  them. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

I.  Corn  Meal  Mush 

i  c  corn  meal  3  Jc  boiling  water 

1 1  salt 

Mix  corn  meal  with  cold  water,  slowly  stir  this  into  the 
rapidly  boiling  water,  boil  and  stir  for  5  minutes,  cook  more 
slowly  for  2  to  3  hours.  This  may  be  served  hot  with  milk 
or  cream  and  sugar,  or  it  may  be  molded  and  used  for  frying. 
It  is  nice  to  use  milk  in  place  of  part  of  the  water. 

Note  increase  in  bulk  of  corn  meal  after  cooking. 

II.  Fried  Mush 

Cut  molded  mush  into  f-inch  slices.  Drop  into  deep  fat  and 
cook  until  golden  brown. 

If  desired,  the  slices  may  be  dipped  into  egg  and  crumbs. 

III.  Rolled  Oats 

i  c  Rolled  Oats  2  c  water 

salt 


48  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

Gradually  stir  oats  into  boiling  salted  water.  Boil,  stirring  con- 
stantly, for  5  minutes,  then  cook  at  a  lower  heat  for  several  hours. 

Raisins  or  dates  make  a  nice  addition,  but  they  should  be 
cooked  with  the  cereal. 

Note  increase  in  bulk  on  cooking. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

In  using  corn  meal  for  breakfast  cereal,  what  measure  would  you 
cook  for  a  family  of  six  ?  Calculate  cost. 

What  is  the  measure  and  cost  for  Quaker  Oats  and  Cream  of 
Wheat?  How  much  would  the  addition  of  raisins  or  dates  increase 
the  cost  and  food  value  ? 

What  is  the  amount  and  cost  of  Shredded  Wheat  and  Corn  Flakes 
needed  for  a  family  of  six  ? 

Compare  package  and  bulk  cereals  as  to  cost  and  desirability. 

References 

WILEY.    "  Cereals  and   Cereal   Products,"    Bulletin   No.  /j,   Part  IX, 

Division  of  Chemistry,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
WOODS.    "  Food  Value  of  Corn  and  Corn  Products,"  Farmers'1  Bulletin 

No.  298,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
WOODS  and   SNYDER.     "  Cereal    Breakfast   Foods,"  Farmers'1  Bulletin 

No.  24.9,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
KNAPP.   "  Rice  Culture  in  the  United  States,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  Aro.  no, 

U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
KNAPP.    "  Course  in   Cereal    Foods  and   their  Preparation,"  Bulletin 

No.  200,  Office  of  Experiment  Station. 

KNAPP.  "  Breakfast  Foods,"  Bulletin  No.  7^,  Iowa  Experiment  Station. 
KNAPP.  "  Composition  of  Prepared  Cereals,"  Bulletin  No. 33,  Wyoming 

Experiment  Station. 


U.  8.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 

C.  F.  LAXGWOUTHY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


COMPOSITION     OF     FOOD     MATERIALS 


Protein  Fat  Carbohydrates  Ash 


CORN 


Fat:  4.3 


Aeh:  1. 


Water:  10.8 
Protein:  10.0 


Carbohydrates:  73.4 


Water 


Water:  10.6 
Protein:  12.2 


Carbohydrate*:  73.7 


Fuel  Value 
1.  Sq.In.  Equals 
1000  Calorie* 


WHEAT 


168&  calories 
per.  pound 


BUCKWHEAT 
Protein:  10.0 -~  Water:  12.6 


Fat:  1.7 


Ash.  L8 


Carbohydrate*:  73.2 


lf>2f>  calories 
per  pound 


Ash:  2.0 
Fuel  value: 


OAT 


Fat  :f..n 


Ash:  3.0 


Water:  11.0 
-Protein.  11.8 


1696  calories 
per  pound 


RICE 


Water.  12.C 
Protein:  8.0 


Carbohydrates:  69.2 


Fat:  1.5— » 


Fuel  value: 


Carbohydrates:  73.0 


RYE  Carbohydiates:  77.0 

Water:  10.3 


-Fat:  2.0 


Ash:  1.0 


Protein:  12.2 


i:  1.9 


Fuel  value: 


1070  calories 
per  pound 


Fuel  value: 


1C20  calories 
per  pound 


1620  calorie* 
per  pound 


CEREAL  GRAINS 


49 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.  C.  True:  Director 


^Prepared  by 

C.  T.  LANGWORTHY 

Expert  in  .Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


COMPOSITION    OF     FOOD     MATERIALS 


Protein 


Fat  ICarbohydrates  Ash 


Water 


Fuel  Value 
1.  Sq.ln.  Equals 
1000  Calories 


SHELLED  BEAN,  FRESH 

,-Water:  58.9 


Fat:  O.G 


Carbohydrates:  29.1 


Erotein:  9. 


Ash:  2.0 


Fuel  value: 


NAVY   BEAN,   DRY 

-Water:  12.6 

-Fat:  1.8 

Ash:  3.5 
Fuel  value: 


720  calories 
per  pound 


1560  calories 
per  pound 


STRING   BEAN,  GREEN 

Carbohydrates:  7. 


Water:  89.2 


"Water:  J.5.; 


Protein;  2.3 


Fuel  value: 


I 


100  calories 
per  pound 

CORN,  GREEN 

EDIBLE   PORTION 


Carbohydrates:  19.7 


Ash:  0.7 


4CO  calories 
per  pound 


-Fat:  1.1 


LEGUMES  AND  CORN 


5° 


CHAPTER  IX 

DRIED   LEGUMES 

Not  many  vegetables  are  dried,  but  legumes  -  -  such  as 
beans,  peas,  lentils,  and  peanuts-  -are  kept  in  the  dry 
state  for  use  during  the  whole  year.  These  dried  leg- 
umes, naturally,  have  a  very  low  percentage  of  water. 
They  are  high  in  protein  and  contain  some  starch.  Pea- 
nuts are  high  in  fat.  In  some  households  corn  is  dried, 
and  it  makes  a  very  acceptable  product.  Commercially, 
other  vegetables  have  been  dried,  but  the  result  is  not 
altogether  satisfactory. 

The  legumes  are  not  only  high  in  food  value,  but  they 
are  inexpensive,  make  a  very  good  substitute  for  meat, 
and  add  variety  to  the  diet.  The  wide  use  of  legumes  by 
certain  races,  and  by  those  engaged  in  hard  labor,  such 
as  lumbermen,  bears  evidence  to  the  fact  that  their  food 
value  is  high.  A  little  care  bestowed  upon  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  legumes  will  result  in  very  palatable  dishes, 
the  use  of  which  should  be  encouraged  both  from  a  die- 
tetic and  an  economic  viewpoint.  The  removal  of  the 
hulls  of  beans  and  peas  will  frequently  prevent  the  dis- 
comfort which  sometimes  follows  the  eating  of  them.  If 
the  water  used  in  cooking  is  very  hard,  a  little  soda  should 
be  added.  Time  should  be  allowed  for  soaking  these  dried 
foods,  and  they  should  be  cooked  until  they  are  thoroughly 
softened. 


52  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

I.  Baked  Beans 

Soak  40  beans  overnight  in  cold  water.  In  the  morning  add 
fresh  cold  water  and  cook  slowly  until  the  skins  begin  to  burst. 
Pour  off  water  and  put  beans  into  jar.  Bury  in  beans  f  Ib.  of 
fat  salt  pork.  To  i  c  boiling  water  add  i  T  salt,  i  T  molasses, 
3T  sugar,  and  pour  over  beans.  Add  enough  more  boiling 
water  to  cover  beans ;  replenish,  if  needed,  during  cooking. 
Cover  the  bean  jar  and  bake  slowly  from  6  to  8  hours.  Mustard 
may  be  added  if  the  flavor  is  desired. 

Calculate  the  cost  of  this  dish  and  the  number  of  people  served. 

What  is  the  increase  in  the  bulk  of  beans  on  cooking  ? 

II.  Lentil  Soup 

4 c  lentils  i  Ib.  ham  Salt 

i  bay  leaf  i  onion  Pepper 

i  carrot  i  T  butter 

Soak  lentils  overnight,  drain,  cover  with  cold  water,  and 
bring  to  boil ;  cook  for  an  hour.  Drain  again,  cover  with  boil- 
ing water,  add  ^t  soda,  ham,  bay  leaf,  onion,  and  carrot.  Cook 
until  lentils  are  tender.  Remove  ham,  press  through  a  colander. 
Season  with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter.  Add  cream  or  milk  to 
give  desired  consistency. 

III.  Dried- Pea  Soup 

1  c  dried  peas  Small  piece  of  2  T  flour 

2  qt.  cold  water  fat  salt  pork  i^t  salt 

^  onion  3T  butter  -Jt  pepper 

Soak  peas  several  hours  or  overnight;  drain,  add  water,  pork, 
and  onion.  Simmer  several  hours  until  soft,  and  run  through 
colander  or  sieve.  Melt  butter,  add  flour,  and  mix.  Add  to  this 
a  small  portion  of  the  soup,  boil,  and  turn  into  the  soup  kettle. 
This  use  of  flour  and  butter  in  the  making  of  soup  or  gravy  is 


DRIED  LEGUMES  53 

termed  "binding,"  because  it  holds  together  all  the  ingredients 
of  the  dish.  Season  with  salt  and  pepper.  If  soup  is  too  thick, 
add  milk  or  cream. 

IV.  Cream  of  Lima  Beans 

Soak  i  c  dried  beans  overnight,  drain,  and  cook  slowly  in 
salted  water  for  from  2  to  3  hours.  Drain,  season  with  butter, 
pepper,  and  salt,  and  add  ^c  cream. 

V.  Peanut  &indwiches 

Put  freshly  roasted  peanuts  through  the  finest  knife  on  the 
grinder;  mix  with  melted  butter  or  salad  dressing  and  make 
into  sandwiches. 

V I .  Salted  Pea  n  uts 

-j-T  butter  or  olive  oil         -J-c  shelled  peanuts         Salt 

Shell  and  remove  skins  from  unroasted  peanuts,  add  them  to 
the  hot  fat  in  frying  pan,  and  stir  constantly  until  peanuts  are  a 
light  brown.  Salt,  and  cool  on  brown  paper  to  remove  excess 

of  fat. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

Is  it  desirable  to  use  the  fireless  cooker  in  preparing  dried 
vegetables  ? 

Compare  the  composition  of  beans  and  peanuts  with  potatoes. 

Would  you  serve  salted  peanuts  with  a  heavy  or  a  light  meal  ? 

If  you  were  going  camping  and  were  allowed  small  luggage, 
suggest  some  of  the  vegetable  foods  which  you  probably  would  take 
and  some  which  you  would  not. 

References 

ABEL.   "Beans,  Peas,  and  Other  Legumes  as  Food,"  Fanner^  Bulletin 

No.  121,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
HUTCHISON.    Food  and  Dietetics. 
BEATTIE.     "  Syllabus  on  the  Peanut,"  Faj-niers*  Institute,  Lecture  /j, 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


CHAPTER  X 

V  '  MILK 

Milk  has  a  large  percentage  of  water,  but  still  contains 
enough  of  other  nutrients  to  make  it  a  good  food.  It  is 
especially  adapted  to  infants  and  young  children,  but  is 
desirable  for  older  people,  either  when  taken  alone  or  com- 
bined with  other  foods. 

COMPOSITION  OF  MILK 


CONSTITUENTS 

PER  CENT 

Water      

87-88 

Protein    

T.-A 

Fat  

3    1 

-?-c 

Carbohydrate       

J     J 

4.c-c 

Ash      

•t*j    j 

O.7 

•*•/ 

It  will  be  noted  that  milk  contains  the  five  nutrients, 
or  food  principles,  and  this  is  to  be  expected  when  it  is 
realized  that  infants  and  growing  children  live  on  milk 
alone.  It  is  adapted  in  form  and  composition  to  the  needs 
of  the  young,  but  it  is  not  good  as  an  exclusive  food  for 
older  persons,  for  the  food  principles  are  not  in  proper 
proportion  for  the  adult. 

Milk  is  an  animal  food  which  contains  a  carbohydrate. 
This  is  a  sugar  and  is  called  lactose.  The  fat  of  milk 
occurs  in  tiny  globules  (which  rise  to  the  top  of  milk  as 
cream),  and  is  separated  in  the  form  of  butter.  The  mineral 

54 


MILK  55 

matter  of  milk  is  especially  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
growing  child.  The  protein  of  milk  is  mainly  in  two 
forms,  casein  and  albumen.  As  said  before,  protein  is 
the  nutrient  which  builds  tissue,  and  this  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  people  of  all  ages,  but  especially  needed  for 
the  young  on  account  of  growth.  If  milk  is  taken  with 
a  meal  instead  of  water,  it  must  be  remembered  that  so 
much  extra  food  is  being  added  to  the  meal.  A  glass  of 
milk  or  a  bowl  of  cream  soup  may  well  form  part  of  a 
light  lunch.  The  value  of  skimmed  milk  as  a  food  is 
not  always  appreciated.  Skimming  removes  fat  only,  and 
the  rest  of  the  nutrients  are  left.  The  price  of  skimmed 
milk  is  much  less  than  that  of  whole  milk,  and  it  has 
enough  food  value  to  deserve  more  extended  use. 

Certain  minute  forms,  already  discussed  in  Chapter  IV, 
as  well  as  similar  forms  which  produce  disease,  grow  very 
readily  in  milk.  Consequently  great  care  must  be  used  in 
producing,  handling,  and  keeping  milk.  The  production 
of  clean,  wholesome  milk  involves  extra  care  and  means 
additional  expense.  It  is  always  wise  to  pay  the  price  of 
good,  wholesome  milk,  particularly  if  it  is  used  for  infants 
or  invalids.  The  duty  of  inspecting  dairies  belongs  to  city 
boards  of  health  ;  and  from  these  boards  information  con- 
cerning the  condition  of  the  milk  from  any  dairy  may  be 
obtained.  The  duty  of  the  householder  is  to  know  the 
source  of  the  milk  supply  in  the  first  place,  and,  in  the 
second  place,  to  take  proper  care  of  the  milk  after  it  is  in 
the  house.  All  pails,  pans,  bottles,  and  other  vessels  in 
which  milk  is  kept  should  be  thoroughly  washed  and  scalded 
with  boiling  water  after  each  use.  A  milk  vessel  rinsed  with 
boiling  water  is  in  better  condition  if  it  is  not  wiped  with 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A,  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 

C.  F.  LANG  WORTHY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


Protein 


COMPOSITION     OF     FOOD     MATERIALS 

Fat  Carbohydrates 


Ash 


Water 


Fuel  Value 
1.  Sq.In.  Equals 
1000  Calories 


WHOLE   MILK 


Fat:  4.0- 
Ash:  0.7- 


-  Water:  87.0 


Fuel' value: 


-Protein:  3.3 
Tar 


bohydrate*:  5.0 


815  calories 
per  pound 


BUTTERMILK 


Fat:  0.5 
Ash:  0.7 


Water:  91.0 

Protein:  3.0 
Carbohydrates:  4.8 


SKIM    MILK 


Fat:  0.3 
Aon:  0.7 


Fuel  value: 


-Water:  90.6 

Protein:  3.4 
Nar, 


bohydrates:  5.1 


165  calories 
per  pound 


CREAM 


Fuel  value: 


ar bohydrates:  4  0 


ICO  calories 
per  pound 


880  calories 
per  pound 


MILK  AND  MILK  PRODUCTS 


MILK  57 

a  towel  or  cloth,  for  these  are  not  free  from  bacteria.  For 
the  same  reason,  the  common  custom  of  rinsing  a  pan 
in  fresh  cold  water  is  not  a  good  one.  If  the  condition  of 
the  milk  is  doubtful,  it  is  best  to  pasteurize  or  boil  the  milk, 
since  heat  will  kill  any  disease-producing  forms.  Boiling 
milk  will  destroy  many  organisms  present,  but  it  affects 
the  flavor  of  the  milk  and  brings  about  other  undesirable 
changes.  In  pasteurization  the  milk  is  not  heated  to  the 
boiling  point,  but  to  a  temperature  high  enough  to  destroy 
most  disease-producing  organisms. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES1 

I.  Pasteurization  of  Milk 

Nearly  fill  a  clean  bottle  with  fresh  milk.  Cork  with  a  care- 
fully rolled  plug  of  clean  cotton.  Place  the  bottle  in  cold  water, 
taking  care  that  the  water  does  not  reach  the  mouth  of  the  bottle. 
Heat  slowly  until  the  water  reaches  a  temperature  of  60°  C. 
Remove  from  fire,  but  keep  closely  covered  for  20  minutes. 
Remove  from  water  and  cool  quickly.  Keep  in  a  cool  place. 

Why  should  pasteurized  milk  be  used  soon  after  treating  ? 

II.  Effect  of  Boiling  upon  Milk 

1.  Boil  a  portion  of  sweet  milk  for  i  minute.   Cool  and  com- 
pare with  pasteurized  milk  as  to  taste. 

2.  Boil  a  portion  of  sour  milk  for  i  minute. 

III.  Separation  of  Constituents  of  Milk 

1.  Skim  cream  from   i  c  of  milk.   What  has  been  removed 
from  the  milk  ? 

2.  To  the  skimmed  milk  add  vinegar  drop  by  drop  until  the 
white  curd  (casein)  separates  out  from  the  liquid.   Strain.  What 
nutrient  is  strained  out  ? 

1  Exercises  I,  II,  and  III  may  be  demonstrated  by  the  teacher. 


58  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

3.  Boil  the  liquid  which  has  passed  through  the  strainer  in  2. 
Strain  or  filter  this  through  a  filter  paper.   On  the  filter  paper 
is  the  albumen.  What  nutrient  is  this  ? 

4.  The  liquid  which  has  passed  through  the  filter  in  3  is  the 
water  of  the  milk  with  some  substances  dissolved  in  it.  What 
are  they  ? 

IV.  Cottage  Cheese 

Pour  2  c  of  hot,  but  not  boiling,  water  over  2  c  of  thick,  sour 
milk.  Strain.  If  the  curd  has  a  sour  taste,  add  water  a  second 
time.  Season  with  salt,  pepper,  and  cream. 

V.  Junket 

Heat  to  lukewarm  ^-c  milk.  Add  ^t  sugar,  a  few  drops  va- 
nilla, and  -J  junket  tablet  dissolved  in  1  1  warm  water.  Pour  at 
once  into  a  dish.  When  set,  cool  and  serve. 

VI.  Chocolate 

f  c  heated  milk  |-T  sugar 

\  square  bitter  chocolate  A  few  grains  of  salt 

cornstarch  mixed  with  4  or  5  drops  of  vanilla 
cold  milk 


Add  cornstarch,  sugar,  and  salt  to  cold  milk  and  heat  to  boil- 
ing, stirring  constantly.  Remove  from  fire,  add  grated  choco- 
late, and  mix  with  f  c  heated  milk.  Heat  in  a  double  boiler 
from  10  to  15  minutes.  Just  before  serving,  add  vanilla  and 
beat  with  Dover  egg-beater. 

VII.  Potato  Soup 

3  potatoes  i-J-t  salt 

4C  milk  £t  celery  salt 

2  slices  onion  -Jt  pepper 

2T  butter  A  few  grains  of  cayenne 

i  T  flour  i  T  chopped  parsley 


MILK  59 

Cook  potatoes  in  boiling,  salted  water.  When  soft,  rub  through 
a  sieve.  Scald  milk  with  onion  until  well  seasoned,  remove  onion, 
and  mix  milk  and  potatoes.  Bind  the  mixture  with  butter  and 
flour  which  have  been  cooked  together.  Add  seasonings  and 

serve. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

Compare  cost  of  milk  per  quart  from  different  dealers.  What 
causes  the  difference  in  price?  What  is  the  standing  of  your  milk 
dealer  ? 

When  should  milk  be  pasteurized? 

What  changes  do  you  observe  when  sweet  milk  is  heated ;  when 
sour  milk  is  heated? 

Why  not  use  boiling  water  in  making  cottage  cheese? 

Why  do  you  heat  milk  in  a  double  boiler? 

Why  not  use  hot  milk  in  making  junket? 

References 

MILNER.  "The  Use  of  Milk  as  Food,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No. 363,  U.S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

HUTCHISON.    Food  and  Dietetics. 

ROGERS.  'Bacteria  in  Milk,"  Farmer^  HnUctin  No. 348,  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

WHITAKER,  Roci  RS.  and  HUNT.  "  The  Care  of  Milk  and  its  Uses  in  the 
Home,"  Farmers'  Hnlletin  No. 413^  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

WHITAKER.  "The  Extra  Cost  of  producing  Clean  Milk,"  Circular 
No.  170,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

LANE.  "  Medical  Milk  Commissions  and  the  Production  of  Certified  Milk 
in  the  United  States,"  Hnlletin  No.  104,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

"  Milk  and  its  Relation  to  Public  Health,"  Hygienic  Laboratory  Bul- 
letin No.  56. 

DENTOX.  '  Pasteurization  of  City  Milk  Supplies,"  The  Journal  of  Home 
Economics^  June,  1910. 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 
C.  F.  LANG  WORTHY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


COMPOSITION     OF     FOOD     MATERIALS 

Protein  Fat  Carbohydrates  Ash  Water 

WHOLE   EGG 


Fuel  Value 

1.  Sq.In.  Equala 

1000  Calories 


Water:  73.7 


EGG 

WHITE   AND  YOLK 


Protein:  14.8 JM 

Fat:  10.5 

Ash:  1.0 

Fuel  value  of  whole  egg: 


ater:  86.2 


lein:  13.0 


JIuei  value  of  yolk 


Fat:  0.2 
Ash:  0.6 


Fuel  value  of  white: 


695  calories 
per  pound 


CREAM  CHEESE 

Water:  34.2X 


1650  calories 
per- pound 


245  calories 
per  pound 


Fat:  33.7. 


Ash:  3. 


COTTAGE  CHEESE 


Protein:  25.9  'Water:  72.0, 

Carbohydrates.  2.4 

Carbohydrates:  4, 


Protein:  20.9 


1885  calories  per  pound 


Fuel  value: 

B 

495  calories  per  pound 


EGGS  AND  CHEESE 


60 


CHAPTER   XI 

EGGS 

Eggs  are  a  valuable  animal  food  composed  of  water, 
protein,  fat,  and  mineral  matter,  all  the  substances  required 
for  the  development  of  the  young  chick.  The  percentage  of 
water  is  less  than  in  milk,  the  protein  is  greater,  and  there 
is  no  carbohydrate.  Albumen  is  found  in  the  white  and 
yolk  of  egg,  as  well  as  in  milk,  but  other  forms  of  protein 
occur  in  eggs.  The  yolk  contains  the  fat  and  a  large  part 
of  the  mineral  matter.  Eggs  are  a  good  substitute  for  meat 
because  of  their  protein.  The  shell  of  the  egg,  contrary  to 
popular  notion,  is  porous,  and  consequently  will  permit 
the  entrance  of  disease  and  other  putrefactive  germs. 
Dirty  nests  may  be  dangerous,  and  if  eggs  are  packed, 
clean  material  should  be  used.  Eggs  should  be  kept  clean 
rather  than  washed,  for  they  have  a  slight  covering  which 
is  some  protection  against  infection  as  well  as  against 
evaporation.  As  an  egg  grows  older,  water  evaporates 
through  the  porous  shell  and  the  egg  weighs  less.  This 
fact  is  made  use  of  in  testing  the  freshness  of  eggs.  When 
they  are  put  into  water  or  a  salt  solution,  the  fresh  or  heavy 
ones  stay  at  the  bottom  and  the  lighter  ones  come  to  the 
top.  The  white  of  egg  on  beating  entangles  a  large  amount 
of  air,  and  this  is  an  aid  in  making  light  desserts,  omelets, 
and  cakes.  Albumen  coagulates  on  heating,  and  this  makes 

egg  a  thickening  agent  for  custards  and  sauces.    Care  must 

61 


62  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

be  taken  not  to  overcook  albumen  ;  if  in  combination  with 
a  liquid,  it  will  first  thicken  the  liquid,  but  on  continued 
heating  it  will  separate,  as  the  protein  of  milk  does  in 
making  cottage  cheese.  If  albumen  is  heated  slightly  it 
becomes  jellylike,  and  on  continued  heating  it  grows  very 
hard  and  tough. 

LA  BORA  TOR  Y  EXERCISES l 

I.  Manipulation. 

1.  Separate  the  white  and  yolk  of  an  egg.    Beat  each  thor- 
oughly with  a  wire  egg-beater.    Note  difference  in  results.    Let 
both  stand  30  minutes.    Observe  occasionally,  but  do  not  disturb. 
If  eggs  are  used  as  leaveners,  when  should  they  be  beaten  ? 

2.  Beat  whole  egg  thoroughly.    Compare  i  and  2.   What  ef- 
fect does  the  presence  of  the  yolk  have  on  the  beating  of  the 
white  ?    What  is  the  purpose  in  the  beating  of  eggs  ? 

II.  Effect  of  Heat  upon  Eggs. 

1.  Place  3  eggs  in  3  pints  of  boiling  water.    Remove  from 
flame,  cover  closely,  and  keep  warm.    Test  i  egg  in  5  minutes, 
another  in  7,  and  the  third  in  10. 

2.  Cover  i  egg  with  boiling  water.    Boil  for  3  minutes.    Re- 
move and  test. 

3.  Cover  i  egg  with  boiling  water  and  boil  for  20  minutes. 
What  factors  would  have  any  effect  on  comparable  results  in 

the  above  experiments  ? 

III.  Poached  Eggs. 

Place  i  c  water  in  small  frying  pan.  Bring  to  boil,  add  J  t  salt. 
Break  an  egg  into  a  saucer  and  carefully  slip  it  into  a  buttered 
muffin  ring  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  frying  pan.  The  water 
should  cover  the  egg.  Place  the  pan  where  the  water  cannot 

1  Exercises  I  and  II  may  be  demonstrated  by  the  teacher. 


EGGS  63 

boil,  let  stand  until  a  white  film  has  formed  over  the  top  of  the 
egg  and  the  white  is  firm  (about  6  minutes).  With  a  skimmer 
remove  the  egg  and  muffin  ring  to  a  piece  of  buttered  toast  and 
carefully  lift  off  the  ring.  Season  with  butter,  salt,  and  pepper. 

IV.  Omelet. 

i  egg  i  T  water 

£  t  salt  Pepper 

i  t  butter 

Separate  white  and  yolk  of  egg.  Beat  yolk  until  thick,  add 
salt,  pepper,  and  water,  and  mix  well.  Beat  white  until  stiff  but 
not  dry.  Fold  the  white  carefully  into  the  yolk.  Melt  the  but- 
ter in  an  omelet  pan,  add  the  egg,  and  cook  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture. Place  in  a  hot  oven  to  dry  the  top.  Fold  and  turn  onto 
a  hot  platter. 

When  should  the  oven  be  lighted  ? 

When  should  the  white  of  egg  be  beaten  ? 

Would  a  preparation  of  yolks  of  eggs  alone  be  light  ? 

V.  Baked  Custard. 

i  c  milk  2  T  sugar 

i  egg  A  few  grains  of  salt 

Flavoring 

Do  not  beat  egg,  but  mix  thoroughly  with  milk,  sugar,  and 
salt.  Add  milk  and  flavoring  and  pour  into  a  custard  cup.  Set 
cup  in  a  pan  of  warm  water  and  place  in  oven. 

Why  is  the  cup  set  in  a  pan  of  water  ? 

VI.  Soft  Custard. 

i  c  scalded  milk  Few  grains  salt 

1  egg  Vanilla 

2  T  sugar 

Beat  egg  slightly  and  add  sugar  and  salt ;  stir  constantly  while 
gradually  adding  the  hot  milk.  Cook  in  a  double  boiler ;  continue 


64  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

stirring  until  mixture  thickens  and  a  coating  is  formed  on  the 
spoon.  Chill,  and  flavor  with  vanilla.  If  cooked  too  long  the 
custard  will  curdle ;  if  this  should  happen,  remove  immediately 
from  the  fire  and  whip  with  a  Dover  egg-beater. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

From  observations  on  Exercise  II,  how  should  a  soft-cooked  egg 
be  prepared? 

For  a  family  of  six,  calculate  the  cost  of  a  serving  of  soft-cooked 
eggs  when  eggs  are  20  cents  a  dozen ;  45  cents  a  dozen. 

Repeat  cost  calculation  for  omelet. 

Why  are  eggs  beaten  in  making  the  omelet,  and  not  beaten  in 
making  the  custard? 

References 

LANGWORTHY.     "  Eggs  and  their  Uses  as  Food,"  Farmers''  Bulletin 

No.  128,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
HUTCHISON.    Food  and  Dietetics. 
HAMMERSTEN.    Physiological  Chemistry. 
LEACH.    Food  Inspection  and  Analysis. 
LAMSON.    "  Water  Glass  a  Preservative   for  Eggs,"  Bulletin  No.  67, 

Connecticut  Experiment  Station. 
LAMSON.    "  Infection   and    Preservation    of   Eggs,"   Bulletin    No. 

Connecticut  Experiment  Station. 


CHAPTER  XII 

CHEESE 

Cheese  is  a  food  prepared  from  milk,  but  differs  greatly 
from  milk  in  composition.  At  least  half  of  the  water  is  re- 
moved from  milk  in  the  making  of  cheese.  There  is  a  great 
variety  of  cheeses,  due  to  the  kind  of  milk  used  and  the 
methods  of  making  and  ripening.  Ordinarily  cow's  milk  is 
used,  and  the  curd  is  separated  by  use  of  either  acid  or  rennet. 
Where  a  large  part  of  the  water  is  removed,  a  hard  cheese 
results,  such  as  the  ordinary  American  cheeses.  The  Neuf- 
chatel  is  an  example  of  a  soft  or  cream  cheese.  The  flavor 
of  cheese  is  produced  during  the  ripening  process  by  the  ac- 
tion of  bacteria  or  molds.  The  familiar  American  or  Cheddar 
cheese  is  ripened  by  bacterial  action  ;  Roquefort,  by  molds. 

Cheese  varies  greatly  both  in  kind  and  composition,  but, 
generally  speaking,  it  is  approximately  one  third  each  of 
water,  fat,  and  protein.  Cheese  contains  practically  no  car- 
bohydrate, and  the  custom  of  eating  it  with  crackers,  or  com- 
bining with  rice,  macaroni,  or  potatoes,  is  rational.  Cheese 
is  frequently  called  indigestible,  but  the  reason  for  this  is  usu- 
ally due  to  improper  use.  It  is  a  highly  concentrated  food, 
consequently  should  not  be  eaten  in  very  large  quantities 
or  added  to  the  dessert  at  the  end  of  a  heavy  meal.  Cheese 
is  frequently  eaten  for  its  flavor,  but  its  food  value  should 
always  be  recognized  when  it  becomes  a  part  of  the  meal.  A 
very  desirable  way  of  serving  cheese  is  in  combination  with 
other  foods,  thus  affording  a  large  variety  of  cooked  dishes. 

65 


66  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

I.  Effect  of  Heat  upon  Cheese 

Add  2T  grated  cheese  to  -J-c  milk.  Heat  to  boiling.  Note 
results.  Explain. 

II.  Welsh  Rabbit 

.  2  T  flour  2  T  butter 

i  c  milk  4-6  T  cheese 

i  egg  yolk 

Prepare  a  white  sauce  with  flour,  butter,  and  milk.  Add 
cheese  (finely  divided)  and  egg  yolk.  Remove  from  fire,  and  stir 
until  cheese  is  melted ;  reheat,  and  serve  at  once  on  hot  wafers 
or  toast. 

III.  French  Rabbit 

Fill  a  baking  dish  with  alternate  layers  of  bread  (which  has 
been  sliced,  spread  with  butter,  and  cut  into  small  squares)  and 
cheese  either  grated  or  ground.  Moisten  this  thoroughly  with 
a  mixture  made  in  the  following  proportions : 

i  c  milk  Salt 

i  egg  Cayenne  pepper  and  mustard 

Bake  until  thoroughly  heated  through  and  browned  on  top. 

IV.  Cheese  Crackers 

Sprinkle  grated  cheese  thinly  over  crackers.  Season  with 
salt  and  cayenne  pepper.  Place  in  the  oven  until  crackers  are 
slightly  browned. 

V.  Cheese  and  Pimento  Sandwiches 

c  cheese  2  T  cream  or  salad  dressing 

chopped  pimento         Salt  and  pepper 

Cottage,  Neufchatel,  or  any  other  soft  cheese  may  be  used. 
Cream  the  butter  and  spread  very  thin  slices  of  bread.  Spread 


CHEESE  67 

the  filling  on  the  slices  of  bread  and  pile  in  layers  of  from  six  to 
eight  slices,  having  a  piece  of  plain  bread  on  top.  When  ready 
to  serve,  cut  through  the  slices,  making  a  layer  sandwich. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

Which  one  of   the   food  principles  in  cheese  is  most  affected 
by  heat? 

For  a  family  of  six,  what  is  the  cost  of  a  serving  of  Welsh  rabbit  ? 

Note  cost,  flavor,  and  appearance  of  at  least  five  different  kinds 
of  cheese. 

References 

LANGWORTHY  and  HUNT.  "Cheese  and  its  Economical  Use  in  the 
Diet,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  4.87,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

HUTCHISON.    Food  and  Dietetics. 

CONN.    Dairy  Bacteriology. 

WILEY.    Foods  and  their  Adulteration. 

LEACH.    Food  Inspection  and  Analysis. 

ALVORD.  Cheese  Making  on  the  Farm,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  166, 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

WILLIAMS.   Chemistry  of  Cookery. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

MEAT 

The  flesh  of  cattle,  swine,  and  sheep  furnish  our  common 
meats.  Beef  is  from  cattle,  veal  from  calves,  mutton  from 
sheep,  and  lamb  from  the  young  sheep.  Meat,  milk,  cheese, 
and  eggs  are  the  chief  sources  of  protein.  Protein  from 
animal  sources  is  expensive,  and  vegetable  protein  should 
be  frequently  used  as  a  substitute. 

Meat  contains  water,  protein,  fat,  and  mineral  matter. 
The  amount  of  water  varies  with  the  fat,  which  occurs  in 
layers  and  also  through  the  lean  of  the  meat  in  portions  so 
finely  divided  as  not  to  be  visible.  The  mineral  content  of 
meat  is  important  from  a  dietetic  viewpoint.  Meat  contains 
a  group  of  substances  called  extractives.  These  are  not 
nutrients,  but  they  give  to  the  meat  its  desirable  flavor  and 
consequently  they  should  be  considered  in  cooking  meat. 
These  extractives  are  soluble  in  water  and  may  be  quickly  re- 
moved by  hot  water.  They  vary  in  kind  and  amount  in  dif- 
ferent meats,  and  these,  together  with  the  fat,  give  each  meat 
its  characteristic  flavor.  As  a  muscle  is  used,  the  amount 
of  extractives  increases,  consequently  the  highest  flavored 
is  very  often  the  most  used  and  the  toughest.  For  example, 
a  round  steak  is  more  highly  flavored  than  a  tenderloin. 

Meat,  or  muscle,  is  made  up  of  bundles  of  fibers  bound 
together  with  connective  tissue.  Each  of  these  bundles  is 
made  up  of  smaller  bundles,  the  fibers  being  microscopic. 

68 


MEAT 


69 


These  little  fibers  are  elongated  cells  filled  with  a  fluid 
called  protein.  There  are  several  proteins  in  meat,  and 
some  are  soluble  in  cold  water.  Protein  forms  from  15 
to  20  per  cent  of  the  meat.  As  a  muscle  is  used  the  walls 
of  the  fibers  thicken  and  harden,  and  the  connective  tissue 
increases  in  amount,  so  making  a  tough  piece  of  meat. 


'2  34 

BOTTI.KS  SHOU  INC;  AVKKAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  ONE  POUND  OF  BEEF 
I,  mineral  salt,  .16  oz. ;  2,  fat,  2.08  oz. ;  3,  protein,  3.04  oz. ;  4,  water,  10.72  oz. 

The  cuts  of  meat  may  be  roughly  divided  into  two  classes, 
tough  and  tender.  The  toughness  may  be  due  to  the  amount 
and  kind  of  connective  tissue,  or  to  the  fact  that  the  desir- 
able changes  which  follow  slaughtering  have  not  taken  place. 
The  connective  tissue  increases  in  amount  and  toughness 
with  age  and  hard  work.  For  this  reason,  veal  is  more 
tender  than  beef ;  the  porterhouse  steak  cut  out  from  the 
back  where  the  muscles  are  little  used  is  more  tender  than 
the  round  cut  from  the  leg  where  the  muscles  are  in  con- 
stant use.  The  best  beef-producing  cattle  have  certain 


70  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

* 

characteristics  —  wide  back,  thick  flesh  covering,  short  legs, 
etc.-  -and  animals  of  this  type  that  have  been  well  fed 
produce  first-grade  meat.  This,  of  course,  is  more  tender 
and  of  a  better  flavor  than  that  from  lower-grade  cattle. 
The  fat  should  be  evenly  distributed  through  the  meat ; 
this  means  less  waste,  and  in  cooking  bastes  all  parts  much 
more  effectively. 

Meats  undergo  marked  changes  in  texture  after  slaughter- 
ing. Immediately  after  the  animal  is  killed  the  flesh  is  juicy 
and  tender  ;  very  soon  the  death  rigor  develops,  the  muscles 
stiffen,  and  the  meat  is.  tough.  Later  on,  due  partly,  at  least, 
to  the  formation  of  acids,  the  flesh  becomes  softer  and  more 
tender,  as  in  the  first  stage,  and  acquires  an  added  flavor. 
In  hot  climates  the  meat  is  commonly  eaten  in  the  first  or 
the  second  stage  ;  in  temperate  climates,  in  the  second  and 
the  third,  and,  of  course,  is  much  more  palatable  and  tender 
if  left  until  the  third  stage. 

The  effect  of  heat  upon  protein  has  already  been  shown 
with  milk,  eggs,  and  cheese,  and  the  same  general  principles 
hold  for  cooking  the  protein  in  meat.  The  purposes  of 
cooking  meat  are  to  develop  flavor,  improve  appearance, 
kill  any  living  organisms,  and  soften  the  connective  tissues 
if  they  are  present  in  large  amounts.  Since  proteins  are 
coagulated  and  hardened  by  heat,  it  is  probably  true  that 
cooking  diminishes  ease  of  digestion,  and  it  may  remove 
considerable  quantities  of  nutrients.  The  effect  on  con- 
nective tissue  depends  on  whether  dry  or  moist  heat  is 
applied.  If  the  soft  part,  or  the  contents  of  the  fibers,  is 
scraped  out  and  the  remaining  connective  tissue  placed  in  a 
smoking  hot  frying  pan,  the  effect  of  dry  heat  can  easily 
be  seen.  The  tissue  shrinks  and  hardens  to  a  remarkable 


MEAT  71 

degree,  illustrating  what  happens  when  a  tough  cut,  such 
as  round,  is  broiled  or  roasted.  If  a  similar  piece  were 
placed  in  water  and  simmered  for  a  long  time,  the  fibers 
would  fall  apart,  and  when  the  broth  was  cooled  it  would 
set  more  or  less  solidly.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
moist  heat  has  acted  on  the  connective  tissue,  forming 
gelatin,  which  dissolves  easily  in  the  hot  liquid  and  stiffens 
on  cooling.  The  extractives,  or  flavoring  materials  in  the 
meat,  are  dissolved  out  in  hot  water.  The  flavor  is  much 
more  highly  developed  in  meat  cooked  by  dry  heat,  because 
of  the  higher  temperature  and  also  because  of  the  browned 
outside.  So  we  prefer  the  broiled  steak  or  the  roast  if  the 
meat  is  a  tender  cut. 

Beef  is  divided  by  the  butcher  through  the  backbone 
into  sides  or  halves,  and  then  each  of  these  is  cut  between 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  ribs  into  fore  and  hind  quarters. 
The  muscles  of  the  four  quarter  run  irregularly  and  there 
are  more  of  them,  so  that  the  meat  is  usually  of  a  lower 
grade  and,  therefore,  cheaper  than  that  from  the  hind 
quarter.  The  most  tender  and  the  most  expensive  cuts  lie 
just  back  of  the  middle  of  the  backbone,  decreasing  in 
value  as  either  extremity  is  approached.  The  best  part  of 
the  fore  quarter  is  taken  from  the  ribs  and  is  usually  cut 
into  roasts.  A  rib  roast  is  tender  and  may  be  roasted  in 
an  open  pan  with  dry  heat.  The  fore  quarter  includes  the 
chuck,  neck,  etc.,  and  belongs  to  the  tough  cuts,  so  they 
must  either  be  ground  or  cooked  by  moist  heat,  as  in  pot 
roasts,  stewing,  braising,  corning,  or  in  soup.  These  cuts 
are  fully  as  nutritious  as  the  more  expensive  ones,  and  if 
properly  cooked  at  low  temperatures  and  well  seasoned, 
they  offer  an  excellent  means  of  reducing  the  cost  of  food. 


72  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

The  most  expensive  and  tender  cut  comes  from  the 

Short  ph^  jn   front-  nf  th^  hipg    anH   IQ  knnwn  xs.  fhp  pr|r|-er- 

house  cuL  This  cut  is  made  up  partly  of  the  muscle  called 
the  tenderloin  and  partly  of  the  sirloin.  Where  the 
tenderloin  muscle  ends,  the  loin  nits  ^pgini  and  extend 
back  to  the  rump  cut.  These  are  not  so  tender  as  porter- 
house, but  still  are  classed  as  tender  cuts,  and,  therefore, 
are  suitable  for  broiling.  The  rump  piece  is  ordinarily  cut 
into  roasts,  but  usually  needs  the  application  of  some  moist 
heat  to  make  the  meat  tender,  and  for  this  reason  they  are 
used  as  pot  roasts.  Relow  the  rump  lies  the  ronnrj  a  piece 
of  meat  that  has  little  waste  and  good  flavor.  The  inside, 
or  top,  round  from  a  first-grade  animal  ma  UPS  a  fairly  tpnHpr 
steak  when  broil pd  ;  tjie  ontsiHp  nr  hnfforr^  rminH  ic  less 

desirable,  and  unless  one  is  sure  of  the  grade  of  the  beef, 
moist  heat  or  grinding  is  usually  advisable. 

In  estimating  the  relative  cost  of  the  various  cuts,  the 
amount  of  waste  must  be  taken  into  consideration  ;  for 
example,  chuck  ribs  ordinarily  sell  for  from  10  to  12! 
cents  per  pound,  round  from  1 5  to  1 8  cents  per  pound,  and 
porterhouse  from  25  to  30  cents  per  pound.  Of  the  chuck 
ribs  at  least  one  half  is  waste  ;  of  the  round  only  about 
one  twelfth ;  and  of  the  porterhouse  about  one  eighth. 
The  real  cost  of  the  edible  portions  then  of  the  three 
cuts  mentioned  at  10,  15,  and  25  cents  per  pound,  re- 
spectively, would  be  22,  1 6^,  and  28 1  cents,  showing  that 
the  round  because  of  its  small  percentage  of  waste  is  by 
far  the  cheapest. 

As  has  already  been  said,  protein  is  coagulated  and  hard- 
ened by  heat.  The  higher  the  temperature,  the  harder  and 
tougher  the  product.  Therefore  we  use  a  high  temperature 


MEAT  73 

only  at  the  beginning  of  the  cooking  process  to  form  a 
coating  over  the  outside  which  will  retain  the  juices,  and 
then  lower  the  heat  so  that  the  interior  may  not  be  tough- 
ened and  its  juices  coagulated.  For  this  reason  steaks 
should  not  be  cut  too  thin  ;  never  less  than  three  quarters 
of  an  inch  thick,  and  thicker  than  that  is  desirable. 

The  methods  of  cooking  meat  by  application  of  dry 
heat  are  broiling,  pan  broiling,  oven  roasting  in  an  un- 
covered pan,  or  roasting  before  an  open  fire.  The  steak 
may  be  broiled  under  gas  or  over  glowing  coals,  and  if 
properly  done  will  be  well  browned  on  the  outside  and  juicy 
and  pink  on  the  inside.  A  steak  that  is  gray  all  through 
will  not  be  juicy,  because  the  proteins  dissolved  in  the  juices 
have  all  been  hardened  by  the  heat.  The  steak  should  be 
first  seared  on  either  side  to  retain  the  juice,  then  moved 
farther  from  the  flame  so  that  the  interior  will  not  be  over- 
cooked. Frequently  it  is  more  convenient  to  broil  in  frying 
pan  or  skillet.  In  this  case  the  pan  should  be  smoking  hot 
and  may  be  rubbed  lightly  with  a  bit  of  fat  to  prevent  stick- 
ing. As  soon  as  the  meat  is  browned  on  either  side,  the 
heat  should  be  reduced  as  in  ordinary  broiling.  If  fat  col- 
lects in  the  pan,  it  should  be  poured  off,  otherwise  the  meat 
will  be  fried  rather  than  broiled  and  will  lose  in  flavor. 

A  number  of  experiments  in  the  roasting  of  meat  were 
carried  on  at  the  University  of  Illinois,  and  it  was  found 
that  for  a  tender  cut  the  closed  pan  did  not  give  as  satisfac- 
tory results,  as  far  as  flavor  and  appearance  were  concerned, 
and  the  losses  were  greater  than  where  an  open  pan  was 
used.  The  same  principle  of  high  heat  at  first  for  searing 
and  then  a  lower  heat  to  finish  the  cooking  applies  here 
also.  If  the  fat  side  is  placed  uppermost  in  the  pan, 


74  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

basting  will  not  be  found  necessary.  If  the  roast  is  lack- 
ing in  fat,  lay  a  piece  of  suet  on  the  uppermost  side. 

The  methods  of  cooking  meat  by  the  application  of 
moist  heat  are  stewing,  braising,  steaming,  etc.  By  brown- 
ing the  meat  first,  a  good  flavor  is  produced  and  probably 
more  of  the  juices  are  retained.  In  stewing,  the  meat  is 
cut  into  smaller  pieces  and  is  served  with  the  broth  or  gravy 
so  that  none  of  the  flavor  and  nutritive  material  will  be 
lost.  In  braising,  the  meat  is  placed  in  a  covered  pan  in 
the  oven  and  steamed  in  its  own  juice.  A  pot  roast  is 
similar,  except  that  it  is  cooked  in  a  kettle  on  top  of  the 
stove.  A  small  amount  of  water  is  usually  added  in  both 
cases,  and  the  meat  may  be  floured  and  browned  in 
smoking  fat  before  the  water  is  added.  The  temperature 

9f 

after  the  browning  process  is  finished  must  be  low.  This 
method  may  be  used  with  steaks  also,  browning  thoroughly, 
then  adding  a  small  amount  of  water,  covering  closely, 
and  cooking  for  a  long  time  over  a  very  slow  fire. 

Unless  the  broth  is  served  with  the  meat,  quite  a  little 
of  the  nutritive  and  flavoring  material  may  be  lost,  since 
the  extractives,  mineral  matter,  and  some  of  the  protein 
will  dissolve  in  water.  The  scum  which  covers  the  sur- 
face of  broth  is  mostly  made  up  of  the  dissolved  protein 
which  has  been  hardened  by  heat,  as  are  also  the  set- 
tlings. In  a  clear  broth  this  scum  and  any  solid  particles 
are  usually  carefully  removed  before  serving,  so  that  there 
is  little  left  in  the  broth  but  some  mineral  salts  and  the 
extractives. 

The  strong  meaty  flavor  deceives  many  people  who 
imagine  that  because  of  it  the  broth  is  nourishing.  These 
extractives  are  allied  to  the  stimulating  substances  found  in 


MEAT  75 

tea  and  coffee,  and  therefore  the  broth  has  some  value  as  a 
stimulant,  often  whetting  the  appetite,  but  in  cases  of  severe 
illness  it  should  not  be  given  unless  ordered  by  a  physician. 
It  is  commonly  thought  that  the  most  expensive  cuts  of  meat 
have  the  best  flavor,  but  it  is  frequently  true  that  the  extrac- 
tives are  better  developed  in  the  muscles  which  have  been 
used  more,  and  are  in  consequence  tougher.  The  use  of  dry 
heat,  which  is  possible  only  with  the  more  tender  cuts, 
does  tend  to  develop  flavor,  and  because  of  the  ease  of 
mastication  the  flavor  is  more  easily  detected  in  the  tender 
cuts.  While  the  extractives  are  not  nutritious,  their  value 
as  digestive  stimulants  must  not  be  underrated. 

Good  meat  is  bright  red  in  color  and  has  fat  evenly 
distributed  through  it.  The  fat  should  be  light  yellow  and 
firm.  The  price  of  meat  is  regulated  by  its  tenderness 
rather  than  by  its  nutritive  value.  The  tougher  cuts  require 
more  skill  in  preparation,  more  time,  and  more  fuel,  al- 
though usually  the  cost  of  the  extra  fuel  does  not  equal 
the  extra  cost  of  the  tender  meat. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

I.  Effect  of  Dry  Heat  upon  Protein 

From  a  three-inch  square  of  round  steak  scrape  out  the  soft 
portion  with  a  dull  knife.  Form  this  into  a  ball.  Place  the  soft 
ball,  and  the  connective  tissue  from  which  it  has  been  scraped, 
in  a  hot  frying  pan.  Carefully  watch  the  connective  tissue  while 
heating.  Examine  both  after  cooking  and  explain  results. 

II.  Effect  of  Moist  Heat  upon  Protein 

Soak  i  T  ground  beef  in  2  T  cold  water  for  several  minutes. 
Strain  and  place  in  a  test  tube. 


76  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

Mix  1 1  white  of  egg  with  2  T  cold  water  and  place  in  a  test  tube. 
Heat  both  test  tubes.    Explain  results. 

III.  Tender  Cuts 

1 .  Pan-broiled  porterhouse  steak  or  chops.     Note  weight  as 
purchased.    Weigh  all  edible  portions  and  calculate  the  cost. 
Wipe  with  a  damp  cloth  and  trim  off  ragged  edges  and  excess 
of  fat.    Put  into  a  smoking  hot  frying  pan  without  any  grease. 
Turn  several  times  until  both  surfaces  are  seared  and  brown. 
Finish  cooking  at  a  lower  heat,  turning  occasionally.    Salt  sides 
of  meat  just  as  the  cooking  is  finished.    Serve  on  a  hot  dish. 

2.  Beef  roast  (ribs).   Calculate  cost  of  the  edible  portion  as 
in  exercise  III.   See  that  the  meat  selected  is  clean.  Trim  off  any 
ragged  portions,  but  do  not  remove  fat.   Place  a  rack  in  the  pan, 
arranging  to  have  the  larger  cut  surface  exposed  to  the  direct 
heat  of  the  oven.  The  part  with  the  greatest  surface  of  fat  should 
be  placed  uppermost,  to  do  away  with  the  necessity  of  basting. 
Place  in  a  very  hot  oven,  maintaining  this  heat  for  15  or  20 
minutes,  after  which  the  heat  should  be  lowered  and  the  roast- 
ing continued,  allowing  from  15  to  20  minutes  for  each  pound, 
according  to  the  shape  of  the  cut  and  the  degree  of  cooking 
desired.    Remove  roast  to  a  hot  platter  and  pour  hot  fat  from 
pan.    Make  gravy  in  pan  in  which  roast  is  cooked.    Measure 
flour  and  fat  in  the  proportion  of  2  T  of  each  to   i  c  water. 
Thoroughly  mix  and  brown  fat  and  flour.    Remove  from  fire 
and  gradually  add  the  water,  stirring  constantly.    Boil,  season, 
and  serve  hot. 

IV.  Tough  Cuts 

i.  Pressed  veal.  Cook  a  shank  of  veal  until  very  tender,  so 
that  meat  can  be  easily  picked  to  pieces.  Let  the  water  cook 
down  until  about  i  c  of  the  liquid  remains.  Pick  the  veal  apart, 
season  with  salt,  pepper,  and  sage  if  desired.  Pour  over  this 
the  liquid  from  the  vessel  in  which  the  meat  was  cooked.  Mix 


MEAT  77 

thoroughly  and  pack  closely  in  a  pan  of  proper  shape  to  make 
good  slices  when  the  meat  is  cold.  When  set,  cut  in  thin  slices 
and  serve. 

Hard-cooked  eggs  may  be  packed  into  center  6f  mold. 

2.  Sivtss  steak.   Pound  a  liberal  quantity  of  flour  into  a  piece 
of  round  steak  on  both  sides.    Season  well  and  saute  in  very 
hot  suet  drippings  until  a  good  brown  crust  is  formed.  Then 
add  sufficient  water  to  barely  cover,  and  simmer  slowly  for 
from  i  to  i£  hours.     It  may  be  necessary  to  add  a  little  water 
occasionally.    When  ready  to  serve  there  should  be  just  enough 
liquid  to  moisten  the  meat  thoroughly.    Onion  or  tomato  juice 
may  be  added  to  vary  the  flavor.   Calculate  cost  of  edible  portion 
as  in  exercise  III. 

3.  Brown  stav.   Cut  lean  beef  into  cubes;  neck  beef  will  be 
found  quite  satisfactory  for  this.    Season  each  piece  with  salt 
and  pepper ;  dredge  thoroughly  with  flour  and  brown  well  on  all 
sides  in  a  frying  pan,  using  a  little  suet  to  prevent  sticking  and 
to  give  necessary  fat.   Add  sufficient  water  to  cover  meat,  and 
when  this  has  boiled  up  once,  turn  into  a  double  boiler  and  cook 
for  3  hours.    Diced  vegetables  may  be  added,  toward  the  end  of 
the  cooking,  if  the  flavor  is  desired.    If  gravy  is  thin,  pour  off 
and  thicken. 

4.  Pot  roast.    Use  a  cut  from  the  round,  the  rump,  or  the 
shoulder.    Season  with  salt  and  pepper  and  dredge  with  flour ; 
then  brown  entire  surface  in  pork  fat  or  suet.    Add  a  little  boil- 
ing water,  cover  closely,  and  cook   slowly  for  several  hours 
(4  hours  is  not  too  long  for  a  4-  or  5-pound  roast).    Vegetables 
may  be  added  if  desired.    Less  water  may  be  added  and  the 
meat  cooked  in  the  oven.  The  water  around  meat  in  either 
case  should  be  kept  below  the  boiling  point.    Why  ? 

The  liquor  around  this  meat  makes  an  excellent  foundation 
for  gravy. 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


MEAT  SUBSTITUTES 

By  a  meat  substitute  is  meant  a  dish  which  contains 
enough  protein  so  that  it  can  reasonably  take  the  place 
of  meat  at  a  meal.  Meat  substitutes  may  be  found  from 
both  vegetable  and  animal  sources,  but  the  former  are 
cheaper. 

List  the  dishes  suggested  in  this  book  which  might 
serve  as  meat  substitutes.  Discuss  the  comparative  cost 
and  food  value.  Suggest  other  substitutes. 

Materials,  such  as  rice,  potatoes,  dumplings,  and  maca- 
roni, are  frequently  cooked  with  meat,  thereby  gaining  its 
flavor  and  lessening  the  amount  of  meat  eaten.  These 
are  called  meat  extenders,  and  their  use  helps  to  reduce 
the  cost  of  food.  These  extenders  are  useful  when  a 
small  quantity  of  meat  is  on  hand. 

MEAT  LEFT-OVERS 

Portions  of  meat  left  over  are  too  frequently  thrown  away, 
or  so  poorly  prepared  that.  they  might  as  well  have  been 
thrown  away.  The  use  of  left-overs  requires  some  skill 
and  care,  but  throwing  them  away  is  extravagance.  More 
thought  about  quantities  purchased  would  frequently  result 
in  no  left-over  portions.  In  preparing  left-overs  the  result 
should  always  justify  the  extra  materials  added,  the  time, 
and  the  fuel  used  in  preparation.  In  the  second  cooking 
of  meat  it  must  be  remembered  that  little  cooking  should 
be  done,  or  the  meat  will  be  dried  and  unappetizing.  Extra 
flavorings  are  usually  added,  for  the  original  flavor  of  the 
meat  is  lost. 


MEAT  79 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

I.  Minced  Meat 

Chop  or  grind  cold  meat,  heat  with  some  of  the  gravy,  and 
season  with  celery  salt  or  onion  juice.  Serve  on  buttered  toast. 

II.  Escaloped  Meat 

Put  into  a  baking  dish  alternate  layers  of  macaroni  or  rice, 
and  chopped  or  ground  meat.  Pour  over  it  brown  gravy  or 
tomato  sauce.  Cover  with  buttered  crumbs  and  bake  until  dish 
is  heated  through  and  crumbs  are  brown. 

III.  Browned  Hash 

Mix  together  equal  parts  of  chopped  meat  and  chopped  cold 
boiled  potatoes.  Moisten  slightly  with  gravy  or  stock.  Season 
and  place  in  heated  frying  pan  containing  a  little  fat.  Press 
compactly  into  one  half  of  the  pan ;  heat  slowly  until  brown. 
Turn  onto  a  platter  and  serve  with  tomato  sauce. 

IV.  Beef  Croquettes 

i  c  cold  beef  (ground)  A  few  drops  Worcestershire 
Salt  and  pepper  sauce 

i  T  melted  butter  Enough  gravy  or  meat 
i  or  2 1  onion  juice  stock  to  moisten  well 

Add  ingredients  to  meat,  shape,  roll  in  flour,  egg,  and  crumbs. 
Fry  in  deep  fat  and  serve  with  tomato  sauce. 

V.  Meat  Salad 

Left-over  portions  of  veal,  chicken,  or  ham  may  be  mixed 
with  celery  or  cabbage  and  dressed  with  salad  dressing. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

List  the  market  prices  of  the  common  cuts  of  meat. 
For  a  family  of  six,  calculate  cost  of  a  porterhouse  and  a  Swiss  steak. 
With  the  cost  of  the  serving  of  meat  just  calculated,  compare  the 
cost  of  a  serving  of  eggs  at  20  cents  a  dozen ;  at  45  cents  a  dozen. 


8o  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

For  a  family  of  six,  calculate  the  cost  of  a  rib  roast  and  a  pot 
(rump)  roast. 

In  which  of  the  above  illustrations  would  a  fireless  cooker  be 
useful ? 

What  makes  the  pressed  veal  "  set,"  after  the  liquid  is  poured 
over  the  meat? 

Do  you  think  that  the  usual  objection  to  tougher  and  cheaper 
cuts  of  meat  is  well  founded? 

References 

WOODS.  "  Meats,  Composition,  and  Cooking,"  Farmers1  Brdletin  No. 34, 
U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

LANGWORTHY  and  HUNT.  "  Economical  Use  of  Meat  in  the  Home," 
.  Farmers'1  Bulletin  No. 391,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

GRINDLEY.  '  Experiments  on  Losses  in  Cooking  Meat,"  Bulletin 
No.  102,  Experiment  Stations,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

GRINDLEY  and  MOJONNIER.  "  Losses  in  Cooking  Meat,"  Bulletin 
No.  141,  Experiment  Stations,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

GRINDLEY.  "  Studies  of  Effect  of  Different  Methods  of  Cooking  upon 
Ease  and  Thoroughness  of  Digestion,"  Bulletin  No.  193,  Experi- 
ment Stations,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Boss.  "  Meat  on  the  Farm,  Butchering,  Curing,  and  Keeping,"  Farmers'' 
Bulletin  No.  183,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

MELVIN.  '  The  Federal  Meat  Inspection  Service,  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,"  Circular  No.  125,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

BEVIER  and  SPRAGUE.  '  Roasting  of  Beef,"  Circular  No.  77,  Illinois 
Experiment  Station. 

HALL.  "  Market  Classes  and  Grades  of  Meat,"  Bulletin  No.  147,  Illinois 
Experiment  Station. 

HUTCHISON.    Food  and  Dietetics. 

TERRELL.    Household  Management. 

HALL  and  EMMETT.  "  Relative  Economy,  Composition,  and  Nutritive 
Value  of  the  Various  Cuts  of  Beef,"  Bulletin  No.  138,  Illinois  Ex- 
periment Station. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

FISH  AND  OYSTERS 

The  flesh  of  fish  resembles  the  flesh  of  other  animals 
in  composition.  The  muscle  fibers  are  shorter,  coarser, 
and  are  bound  with  much  less  connective  tissue.  Generally 
speaking,  fish  contains  more  water  than  meat  and  much 
less  fat.  A  few  of  the  commonly  eaten  fish,  such  as  sal- 
mon, contain  fat  in  greater  quantity,  but  these  do  not  con- 
tain more  than  half  of  the  quantity  found  in  a  piece  of 
moderately  fat  beef.  The  flavor  of  fish  is  very  character- 
istic, and  its  use  affords  variety  to  the  diet.  The  flavor  of 
freshly  caught  fish  is  far  superior  to  that  which  has  been 
kept  even  a  short  time.  Unlike  meat,  fish  should  not  be 
kept,  but  used  immediately.  Fish  lends  itself  to  various 
methods  of  preparation,  and  is  good  in  combination  with 
other  things.  The  all-too-frequent  habit  of  frying  fish  has 
possibly  led  to  its  disfavor  with  many  people.  In  selecting 
fish  on  the  market,  choose  only  those  with  firm  flesh  and 
bright  eyes.  Fish  spoils  very  quickly  on  removal  from 
cold  storage. 

Oysters  are  another  form  of  sea  food  very  commonly 
used.  These  are  valued  for  their  flavor  rather  than  for 
their  nutritive  value.  They  have  approximately  the  same 
composition  as  milk,  and  cost  from  five  to  ten  times  as 
much  as  milk.  Some  danger  attends  the  eating  of  raw 

oysters,  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  sometimes  fattened 

81 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations 

A.  C.  True:  Director 


Prepared  by 

C.  F.  LANGWOKTHY 

Expert  in  Charge  of  Nutrition  Investigations 


COMPOSITION     OF     FOOD     MATERIALS 


Protein 
COD 

LEAN  FISH 


Fat 


Carbohydrates  Ash 


Water:  82.6 


Fuel  value: 


t 


300  calories 
per  pound 


Protein:  15.8 


OYSTER 


Fat:  .4 


Water:  86. 


Carbohydrates:  3.7 


Ash:  1.2 


SMOKED   HERRING 


Fuel  value: 


I 


Water:  34.6 
Protein:  36.4 


230  calories 
per  pound 


Water 


Fuel  Value 
1.  Sq.In.  Equals 
1000  Calories 


SALT  COD 


Fuel  value: 


Water:  53. 


400  calories 
per  pound 

Protein:  21.5 

Fat:  .3- 


Ash:  24.7 


MACKEREL 

FAT   FISH 


Water   73. 


Protein:  18.3 


Fuel  value: 


1305  calories 
per  pound 


Fuel  value: 

i 

620  calories 
per  pound 


FISH,  FISH  PRODUCTS,  AND  OYSTERS 


82 


FISH  AND  OYSTERS  83 

in  sewage-polluted  water.  The  laws  for  food  inspection 
have  done  a  great  deal  to  correct  this  evil,  but  outbreaks 
of  typhoid  fever  have  been  traced  to  the  eating  of  raw 
oysters. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

I.  Boiled  Fish 

To  each  quart  of  water  in  which  fish  is  to  be  cooked  add  1 1 
salt  and  1 1  vinegar.  Small  fish  should  be  cooked  whole.  For 
preserving  the  shape  and  appearance  of  the  fish  it  is  desirable 
to  wrap  it  in  a  piece  of  cheesecloth,  which  is  also  an  aid  in 
handling  the  fish.  A  wire  basket  is  convenient  for  cooking  fish 
in  water.  Put  the  fish  into  the  boiling  water  and  cook  at  the 
simmering  point  until  the  bones  and  flesh  will  readily  separate. 
Drain  water  from  the  fish ;  bone,  and  serve  with  suitable  sauce. 

II.  Baked  Fish 

Clean  fish ;  the  head  and  tail  may  or  may  not  be  removed. 
The  fish  may  or  may  not  be  boned.  Rub  inside  and  out  with 
salt  and  pepper.  Fill  the  cavity  with  stuffing,  allowing  it  room 
to  swell  slightly.  Sew  the  slit  over  with  strong  thread,  taking 
stitches  so  deep  that  they  will  not  tear  out.  Brush  over  with 
melted  butter  and  dredge  with  flour.  If  the  fish  is  lean,  lay 
strips  of  fat  pork  over  it.  A  little  water  should  be  added  to  the 
pan.  Bake  from  40  to  60  minutes,  basting  occasionally.  When 
done,  remove  strings  and  strips  of  bacon. 

Garnish  with  lemon  and  parsley  and  serve  with  a  suitable  sauce. 

III.  Fish  Stuffing 

i  c  bread  crumbs  A  few  drops  of  onion  juice 

melted  butter  1 1  chopped  parsley 

salt  ^t  pepper 

1 1  chopped  cucumber  pickle,  if  desired 

This  is  a  dry  dressing.  If  a  moist  dressing  is  desired,  water 
or  meat  stock  may  be  added. 


84  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

IV.  Sauces 

1 .  Maitre-d ''hotel  butter 

\  c  butter  \  t  pepper 

^  t  salt  i  T  chopped  parsley 

i  T  lemon  juice 

Cream  butter  in  a  bowl ;  add  salt,  pepper,  parsley,  and  then 
slowly,  lemon  juice. 

2.  Drawn-butter  sauce 

-Jc  butter  i^c  hot  water 

3  T  flour  Salt  and  pepper 

Melt  \  the  butter,  add  flour  and  seasonings,  and  pour  hot 
water  on  gradually.  Cook  thoroughly  and  add  remaining  but- 
ter cut  into  small  pieces.  May  be  served  with  broiled  or  baked 
fish.  In  the  latter  case,  add  iJT  lemon  juice  or  vinegar. 

3.  Tartar  sauce 

i  T  vinegar  \\.  salt 

1 1  lemon  juice  i  T  Worcestershire 

•Jc  butter  sauce 

Mix  vinegar,  lemon  juice,  salt,  and  Worcestershire  sauce,  and 
heat  over  hot  water.  Brown  butter  and  strain  into  mixture. 

V.  Escaloped  Salmon 

i  c  flaked  salmon  i  c  white  sauce 

Remove  salmon  from  can,  separate  skin  and  bone,  and  flake 
the  salmon.  Put  alternate  layers  of  fish  and  white  sauce  in  a 
buttered  baking  dish,  cover  with  buttered  crumbs,  and  heat  in 
oven  until  brown. 

VI.  Codfish  Balls 

c  salted  cod  -^c  potatoes 

egg  White  pepper 

-J-t  butter  Salt,  if  needed 


FISH  AND  OYSTERS  85 

Wash  the  fish  in  cold  water  and  break  into  small  pieces. 
Wash  and  pare  the  potatoes  and  cut  into  pieces.  Cook  the  fish 
and  potatoes  together  in  boiling  water  until  the  potatoes  are 
soft.  Drain,  shake  over  the  fire  until  dry,  mash  with  a  fork, 
add  the  beaten  egg,  butter,  pepper,  salt  if  needed,  and  beat 
until  light.  Take  up  by  spoonfuls,  mold  slightly,  and  cook  in 
deep  fat.  Or  shape  into  croquettes,  roll  in  egg  and  crumbs, 
and  fry  in  deep  fat. 

VII.  Creamed  Oysters 

1  c  oysters  3  T  butter 
Pepper                                          3T  flour 
Salt  i  c  milk 

Set  oysters  to  drain.  Make  a  thick  white  sauce  of  the  other 
ingredients,  add  the  oysters  just  before  time  to  serve,  and  cook 
only  long  enough  to  heat  them  thoroughly.  The  oysters  should 
be  plump  when  served  -  -  not  heated  until  they  shrink. 

FISH   LKFT-OVERS 

VIII.  Escahped  Fish 

2  c  cold  flaked  fish  Bit  of  bay  leaf 
i  c  white  sauce  i  slice  onion 

i  c  milk  Salt  and  pepper 

Few  sprigs  parsley  £c  buttered  crumbs 

Heat  milk  with  parsley,  bay  leaf,  and  onion  until  well  sea- 
soned, and  make  into  white  sauce.  Arrange  fish  and  white  sauce 
in  a  buttered  baking  dish  in  alternate  layers,  cover  with  buttered 
crumbs,  and  brown  in  hot  oven. 

IX.  Fish  Croquettes 

Moisten  ic  cold  flaked  fish  with  a  thick  white  sauce.  Cool 
and  shape  into  croquettes ;  roll  in  flour,  then  in  egg  and  in 
crumbs,  and  fry  in  deep  fat.  Cold  hard-cooked  eggs  or  parsley 
may  be  cut  up  and  added  to  the  croquette  mixture. 


86  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

X.   Creamed  Fish 

i  c  cold  flaked  fish  4.T  chopped  pimento 

i  c  white  sauce  i  hard-cooked  egg 

Reheat  fish  with  pimento  and  egg  in  white  sauce. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

For  a  family  of  six,  calculate  the  cost  of  a  serving  of  fresh  fish 
and  compare  with  cost  of  meat.  Repeat  with  escaloped  salmon  and 
creamed  oysters. 

Where  are  oysters  grown,  how  obtained,  and  how  shipped  ? 

Is  the  frequent  warning  against  eating  raw  oysters  well  founded? 

References 

LANGWORTHY.  "  Fish  as  Food,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  85,  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

STILES.  "  The  Value  of  the  Shell-fish  Industry  and  the  Protection  of 
Oysters  from  Sewage  Contamination,"  Yearbook  of  Department  of 
Agriculture,  1910,  Separate  No.  544. 

STILES.  "  Shell-fish  Contamination  from  Sewage-Polluted  Waters  and 
from  Other  Sources,"  Bulletin  No.  fj6,  Bureau  of  Chemistry. 

HUTCHISON.    Food  and  Dietetics. 


CHAPTER  XV 

GELATIN 

Gelatin  is  a  substance  derived  from  animal  sources.  It 
is  closely  related  chemically  to  the  other  proteins  which 
have  been  discussed,  but  it  does  not  serve  the  purpose  in 
the  body  which  some  of  these  do.  It  is  prepared  commer- 
cially by  boiling  bone,  gristle,  skin,  etc.  in  water,  and  then 
purifying.  Gelatin  is  odorless,  colorless,  and  tasteless  in 
the  pure  state.  It  swells  in  cold  water  and  dissolves  in  hot 
water.  On  cooling,  a  gelatin  solution  "  sets,"  or  "  jellies." 
In  this  respect  gelatin  is  similar  to  certain  substances  in 
plants  which  also  set,  or  jelly,  water  solutions.  Certain  sea 
plants,  such  as  mosses  and  agar,  yield  substances  which 
have  this  property,  and  preparations  of  these  are  on  the 
market  under  various  names.  In  the  ordinary  fruit  juices 
is  found  another  substance-  -pectin,  a  carbohydrate - 
which  causes  these  juices  to  jelly.  While  some  other  sub- 
stances will  form  a  jelly,  chemically  they  are  not  the  same 
as  gelatin,  and  do  not  have  the  same  food  value.  Gelatin 
is  generally  used  in  the  preparation  of  desserts,  where  it  is 
valued  as  a  carrier  of  flavor  and  for  its  texture  and  consist- 
ency. A  very  small  per  cent  of  gelatin  is  required  to  jelly 
a  solution,  so  that  the  amount  of  gelatin  ordinarily  used 
is  small. 

Gelatin  is  prepared  in  sheets  and  in  granulated  form. 
The  latter  may  be  bought  in  bulk  or  in  small  packages. 

87 


88  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

It  is  most  frequently  used  with  fruits,  both  fresh  and 
canned,  but  fresh  pineapple  should  never  be  used  because 
the  gelatin  will  lose  its  power  to  jelly,  due  to  the  action  of 
the  enzyme  in  the  pineapple. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

I.  Jellied  Prunes 

•J  Ib.  prunes  3  1  gelatin 


i  c  sugar  ^c  lemon  juice 

Soak  and  cook  prunes,  remove  stones,  and  cut  into  pieces. 
To  the  prune  juice  add  enough  boiling  water  to  make  2  cupfuls. 
Soak  gelatin  in  4  T  cold  water  ;  when  soft,  dissolve  in  hot  prune 
juice,  and  add  sugar  and  lemon  juice.  Add  prunes  and  chill. 
Stir  occasionally  during  cooling  process  so  that  the  prunes  may 
not  settle  when  the  jelly  sets. 

II.  Orange  Whip 

4t  gelatin  ^c  cold  water 

i  pt.  orange  juice  Juice  i  lemon 

Sugar 

Soak  gelatin  in  cold  water  and  dissolve  in  hot  water.  Strain 
into  this  the  fruit  juice  and  sugar  to  taste.  Set  aside  until  partly 
jellied  and  then  whip  with  Dover  egg-beater  until  it  becomes 
white  and  frothy. 

What  causes  the  change  of  appearance  on  beating  ? 

III.  Snow  Pudding 

2  1  gelatin  i  c  sugar 

^c  cold  water  ^c  lemon  juice 

i  c  boiling  water  Whites  3  eggs 

Soak  gelatin  in  cold  water,  dissolve  in  boiling  water,  add 
sugar  and  then  lemon  juice.  Cool  ;  when  it  thickens,  beat  with 


GELATIN  89 

an  egg-beater  until  light.  Add  stiffly  beaten  whites  of  eggs  and 
continue  beating  until  mixture  is  stiff  enough  to  hold  its  shape. 
Serve  cold  with  custard  sauce. 

IV.  Tomato  Jelly 

i  c  tomato  juice  1 1  gelatin  soaked  in 
i  slice  onion  2  T  cold  water 

i  stalk  celery  ^t  sugar 

i  bay  leaf  Salt 

i  clove  Paprika 

Simmer  tomato  juice  and  seasonings  for  5  minutes.  Add 
soaked  gelatin  to  the  hot  tomato  juice.  Strain  and  pour  into 
molds  to  set.  Serve  on  a  lettuce  leaf  and  with  a  salad  dressing. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

Calculate  the  cost  of  the  three  puddings  and  the  number  of  people 
served  by  each.  How  much  would  the  cost  be  increased  by  serving 
whipped  cream  with  them? 

Can  you  suggest  the  reason  for  the  condition  of  a  cold  veal  or 
beef  soup  stock? 

References 

WII.KV.    Foods  and  their  Adulteration. 
ALLEN.    Commercial  Organic  Analysis. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

FATS  AND  OILS 

* 

Fat  is  found  in  both  plant  and  animal  foods,  as  previously 
stated,  and  is  practically  always  used  as  a  food  in  combina- 
tion with  other  things. 

The  cooking  of  food  in  fat  is  a  favorite  method  with 
many  people  because  of  the  flavor  which  is  developed,  but 
the  frying  of  food  is  more  common  than  it  should  be, 
even  though  by  proper  care  food  may  be  cooked  in  fat 
without  becoming  grease  soaked.  Food  which  is  soaked 
in  fat  is  more  slowly  and  less  easily  digested.  Harm  may 
come  from  overheating  fat  in  the  cooking,  for  heat  causes 
fat  to  decompose  into  substances  which  are  irritating  to 
the  digestive  tract.  Fats  vary  not  only  in  the  melting 
point  but  in  the  temperature  at  which  they  decompose  by 
heat.  Generally  speaking,  oils  may  be  heated  to  a  higher 
temperature  without  decomposing  than  the  solid  fats,  and 
consequently  they  make  a  very  desirable  medium  for  cook- 
ing. The  cooking  oils  usually  cost  less  than  the  solid  fats, 
and,  due  to  higher  point  of  decomposition,  may  be  used 
a  greater  number  of  times.  Deep-fat  frying  has  some  advan- 
tages over  frying  in  a  small  amount  of  fat,  since  the  object 
to  be  cooked  is  immediately  immersed  in  it  and  a  protec- 
tive coat  is  formed  against  the  absorption  of  fat.  Care 
should  be  taken  in  cooking  in  a  large  quantity  of  fat  be- 
cause it  is  inflammable  and  accidents  may  occur.  Articles, 

90 


FATS  AND  OILS  91 

such  as  potatoes,  which  contain  a  large  amount  of  water 
will  cause  the  fat  to  sputter,  due  to  the  expansion  of  the 
water  to  steam,  and  such  articles  should  be  added  slowly. 
A  large  number  of  cooking  fats  are  on  the  market  at 
the  present  time.  Some  of  these  are  compounds  or  mix- 
tures of  different  animal  and  plant  fats.  If  properly 
prepared,  there  is  no  objection  to  their  use,  and  frequently 
they  save  money  for  the  buyer.  Sometimes  old  and  rancid 
samples  are  bought,  and  on  account  of  the  one  poor  sample, 
all  of  these  special  preparations  are  unjustly  condemned. 
Any  unpleasant  flavor  detected  in  foods  where  these  are 
used  is  practically  always  due  to  the  rancidity  and  not,  as 
is  frequently  supposed,  to  the  character  of  the  fresh  fat. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

I.  Effect  of  Heat  upon  Fats 

Heat  butter,  lard,  some  commercial  compound,  and  a  cooking 
oil,  and  note  point  of  decomposition  as  shown  by  smoking  point. 

II.  Types  of  Commercial  Fats  and  Oils 

Observe  samples  of  some  common  fats  and  oils,  noting 
source,  physical  characteristics,  price,  and  use. 

III.  Ice  Cream 

Ice  cream  in  its  simplest  form  is  sweetened  and  flavored 
cream.  Cream  is  a  very  expensive  form  of  fat  and  sometimes 
an  acceptable  substitution  may  be  made  for  it.  In  the  directions 
given  below  the  ingredients  vary  and  the  cost  of  each  should  be 
computed.  Calculate  the  cost  when  a  thin  (16  per  cent)  cream  is 
used,  and  the  cost  when  double  cream  is  used. 

i.  Ice  Cream 

40  cream  f  c  sugar 

Flavoring 


92  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

Mix  ingredients  and  freeze.  Use  a  freezing  mixture  of  3  to 
4  parts  ice  and  i  part  salt. 

2.  Ice  Cream 

40  cream  i  egg 

2  c  milk  i  T  cornstarch 

1  c  sugar  Flavoring 

Pinch  of  salt 

Mix  cornstarch  with  i  c  cold  milk  and  boil.  Remove  from 
fire  and  stir  in  the  slightly  beaten  egg.  Stir  until  smooth ;  then 
add  the  other  ingredients  and  freeze. 

IV.  Saratoga  Chips 

Wash  and  pare  potatoes.  Cut  into  very  thin  slices  in  a  bowl 
of  cold  water.  Let  stand  for  from  15  to  20  minutes.  Drain  off 
water  and  dry  potatoes  in  a  towel.  Fry  in  deep  fat  until  light 
brown.  Drain  on  brown  paper  and  sprinkle  with  salt. 

Fry  half  of  potatoes  in  lard  and  the  rest  in  some  other  kind 
of  fat.  Compare  in  desirability  and  cost. 

V.  Potato  Croquettes 

2C  hot  riced  potatoes  ^-c  grated  cheese 

2  T  butter  i  egg 

^-t  salt  Few  grains  cayenne 

Shape  into  desired  form,  roll  in  crumbs,  egg,  and  again  in 
crumbs.  Fry  in  deep  fat.  Drain  on  paper  in  oven. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

To  what  extent  may  lard  be  used  in  place  of  butter? 

May  any  of  the  other  fats  be  substituted  for  butter,  and  when  ? 

What  is  the  objection  to  fried  potatoes  as  they  are  frequently 
prepared  ? 

What  other  foods  are  often  fat  soaked  ? 

Name  the  objections  to  foods  which  are  saturated  with  fat.  How 
may  this  difficulty  be  avoided  ? 


FATS  AND  OILS  93 

Why  is  cooking  in  fat  a  common  and  favorite  method  of  pre- 
paring food? 

What  is  the  danger  of  cooking  in  deep  fat  ? 

Are  fats  in  general  cheap  or  expensive  foods  ? 

Name  some  of  the  cheap  and  some  of  the  expensive  fats. 

References 

LEVVKOWITSCH.  Chemical  Technology  and  Analysis  of  Oils,  Fats,  and 
Waxes,  Vols.  I  and  II. 

ALLEN.    Commercial  Organic  Analysis. 

LEACH.    Food  Inspection  and  Analysis. 

NY  i  LEY.    Foods  and  their  Adulterations. 

WILEY.  "  Household  Tests  for  the  Detection  of  Oleomargarine  and 
Renovated  Butter,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  Xo.  /j/,  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

HAYWARD.  Facts  concerning  the  History,  Commerce,  and  Manufac- 
ture of  Butter. 

HAYWARI>.  '  Principles  and  Practice  of  Ice-Cream  Making,"  'Bulletin 
No.  /5J,  Vermont  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

FLOUR 

Flour  is  a  very  familiar  preparation  from  the  cereal 
wheat.  In  the  milling  of  wheat,  the  outer  (bran)  layers  and 
the  germ  are  removed,  and  the  inner  starchy  portion  is 
finely  ground  into  flour.  Flour  is  largely  starch  (from  70  to 
75  per  cent),  but  it  contains  protein,  varying  with  the  kind 
of  wheat.  Water,  mineral  matter,  and  a  very  small  amount 
of  fat  make  up  the  rest  of  the  content.  The  protein  of  the 
flour  possesses  some  interesting  characteristics.  Protein 
of  wheat  occurs  chiefly  in  the  form  of  glutenin  and  gliadin, 
and  when  water  is  added,  these  two  unite  to  form  a  sticky 
substance  called  gluten.  This  is  already  familiar  to  many 
as  the  chewing  gum  obtained  from  the  wheat  kernels. 
Gluten  is  an  elastic  substance  which  is  readily  stretched 
as  the  contained  air  or  moisture  expands.  Like  the  other 
proteins  discussed,  gluten  is  hardened  by  heat.  In  the 
making  of  bread  this  is  of  considerable  importance,  for 
the  expanded  and  hardened  gluten  forms  the  support  or 
framework  of  the  loaf. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  wheat,  and  these  vary  not 
only  in  physical  characteristics  but  in  composition.  In  the 
more  moderate  climates  in  the  United  States  the  wheat 
is  planted  in  the  fall  and  left  in  the  ground  through  the 
winter.  This  is  generally  known  as  winter  wheat.  In  the 
Northwest,  where  the  winters  are  severe,  the  seed  is  sown 

94 


FLOUR  95 

in  the  spring,  and  these  are  known  as  spring  wheats. 
The  spring  wheats  are  harder  and  more  difficult  to  mill 
than  the  winter  wheats.  In  some  of  the  semiarid  portions 
of  the  country  the  very  hard  Russian  wheats  are  grown. 
These  are  known  as  durum  (hard)  wheats,  the  name  indi- 
cating one  of  their  characteristics.  The  durum  wheats 
usually  run  quite  high  in  protein,  and  are  sometimes 
blended  with  other  wheats  in  the  milling  process.  The 


BAKED  GLUTEN  FROM  Two  CUPS  OF  FLOUR 

i,  flour;  2,  dough  from  same ;  3,  gluten  from  same  ;  4,  gluten  baked  ; 

5,  baked  gluten  cut  open 

durum  wheats  are  very  desirable  for  the  making  of  maca- 
roni, and  some  varieties  are  excellent  for  bread. 

In  all  wheats  the  quality  of  the  gluten  is  an  important 
factor  in  bread  making.  Flour  made  from  a  single  variety 
of  wheat  is  not  usual.  The  miller  mixes  or  blends  differ- 
ent wheats  to  make  a  more  desirable  flour.  Generally 
speaking,  the  winter  wheats  are  more  starchy,  which  makes 
them  especially  desirable  for  the  making  of  cake  and  pastry, 
and  many  of  them  make  excellent  bread,  while  the  spring 
wheats  are  higher  in  protein  and  better  adapted  to  the 
making  of  bread  than  the  making  of  pastry.  The  harder 


96  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

varieties  of  the  winter  wheats  and  the  softer  spring  wheats 
resemble  one  another  in  composition.  It  is  not  infrequent, 
however,  to  find  a  flour  which  is  good  for  both  pastry  and 
bread,  due  to  the  wise  blending  of  wheats  in  the  milling. 
The  flour  of  the  starchy  winter  wheats  is  white  and  soft, 
while  that  of  the  spring  wheats  is  more  granular,  and 
creamy  in  color. 

The  complaints  frequently  made  against  a  flour  are  not 
always  just,  for  they  often  arise  from  a  failure  to  recog- 
nize the  kind  of  flour  and  the  use  to  which  it  is  adapted. 
A  good  flour  should  be  a  clear  white  or  cream  in  color ; 
a  gray  flour  indicates  poor  quality,  and  in  no  case  is  a 
musty  smell  permissible. 

Graham  and  whole-wheat  flours  are  also  prepared  from 
wheat.  The  original  graham  flour  was  made  by  grinding 
the  whole  wheat  kernel  without  removing  any  portion  of 
it.  Substitutes  for  this  are  sometimes  found  on  the  market, 
which  are  mixtures  of  bran  with  an  inferior  quality  of 
flour.  In  whole-wheat  flour  the  outer  bran  layers  are  re- 
moved, and  the  whole  is  ground  finer  than  in  the  graham. 
It  is  frequently  stated  that  graham  and  whole-wheat  breads 
have  greater  food  value  than  the  plain  white  bread,  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  whole  wheat  kernel  is  used  in  preparing 
the  former.  While  percentage  composition  seems  to  favor 
the  claim,  it  is  also  misleading.  Bran  stimulates  peristalsis, 
and  so  hastens  food  through  the  digestive  tract,  and  its 
passage  may  be  so  rapid  that  absorption  is  partially  pre- 
vented, thus  causing  a  loss  of  nutrients.  The  laxative 
action  of  bran  has  been  attributed  to  the  mechanical  irri- 
tation of  its  particles,  but  recent  work  indicates  that  this 
action  is  largely  due  to  the  phosphorus  compounds. 


FLOUR  97 

Rye,  barley,  buckwheat,  corn,  and  some  other  cereals 
are  ground  into  meals  and  flours.  Rye  flour  is  often  used 
for  making  bread  ;  but  the  gluten,  if  present,  in  the  other 
cereals  is  of  such  a  nature  that  they  do  not  make  good 
bread.  Corn  meal  is  made  into  a  bread  by  combining 
white  flour  or  egg  with  it. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

I.  Flours 

Examine  graham,  whole-wheat,  and  white  flour,  rye  flour,  and 
corn  meal. 

Sift  and  examine  residue  of  wheat  preparations ;  compare. 
What  is  the  percentage  composition  of  these  flours  ? 

I 1 .  d I n  ten 

Measure  ^c  of  ordinary  white  flour  and  mix  with  it  enough 
water  to  form  a  stiff  dough.  Work  in  the  hands  until  it  be- 
comes smooth  and  elastic,  and  then  wash  it  until  the  water  is 
clear.  What  is  left  ?  What  has  been  removed  ?  Bake  the  residue 
in  a  moderate  oven  for  from  30  to  45  minutes. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

Is  spring  or  winter  wheat  grown  in  your  vicinity  ? 
What  varieties  of  wheat  are  ground  by  your  local  miller? 
What  kind  of  flour  is  used  in  your  home  ? 
Is  more  than  one  kind  of  flour  kept  in  your  home  ? 
What  flour  does  your  local  baker  use  ?    Why  ? 
What  guides  the  baker  in  his  choice  of  flour  ? 
What  guides  the  housewife  in  her  choice  of  flour? 
Why  is  a  blended  flour  desirable  ? 

References 
SNYDER.    Human  Foods. 

HUTCHISON.   Food  and  Dietetics. 
OSBORNE.    Proteids  of  the  Wheat  Kernel. 


98  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

«r 

OSBORNE.  "  Winter  Wheat  Varieties,"  Biilletin  No.  82,  Pennsylvania 
State  College  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

SHEPARD.  "  Macaroni  Wheat,"  Bulletin  No.  92,  South  Dakota  Agri- 
cultural College  Experiment  Station. 

NORTON.  "  A  Study  of  Durum  Wheat," /oumat  of  the  American  Chemi- 
cal Society,  Vol.  XXVII,  August,  1905. 

DONDLINGER.    Book  of  Wheat. 

FREEMAN  and  SHILLING.  "  Flour,"  The  Journal  of  Home  Economics, 
December,  1911. 

JORDAN,  HART,  and  PATTEN.  "  Metabolism  and  Physiological  Effects  of 
Phosphorus  Compounds  of  Wheat  Bran,"  Bulletin  No.  i,  New  York 
State  Experiment  Station,  and  American  Journal  of  Physiology, 

•     Vol.  XVI,  p.  268. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

FLOUR  MIXTURES 

In  the  household  we  are  familiar  with  a  large  number 
of  flour  mixtures,  both  batters  and  doughs.  In  all  these 
mixtures  flour  is  combined  with  moisture  and  some  leav- 
ening agent,  whatever  else  may  be  added.  Water  is  the 
liquid  most  commonly  used,  but  sweet  and  sour  milk  and 
buttermilk  are  frequently  substituted  for  water.  On  mixing 
the  flour  with  the  liquid,  gluten  is  formed.  As  explained 
before,  the  gluten  is  expanded  by  gas  and  steam,  and  if 
heated  while  in  this  stretched,  or  expanded,  condition,  the 
gluten  is  hardened  and  forms  a  sort  of  framework  for  the 
other  ingredients  of  the  loaf.  Exercise  II  in  the  previous 
chapter  illustrates  this  characteristic  of  gluten. 

The  third  essential  to  the  flour  mixture  is  a  leavening 
agent.  Flour  and  water  mixtures  are  heavy,  and  it  is  nec- 
essary to  provide  some  means  for  lightening,  or  leavening, 
them.  To  accomplish  this,  air  may  be  beaten  into  the 
mixture  directly,  as  in  the  beaten  biscuit  of  the  South,  or 
air  may  be  added  after  it  has  been  beaten  into  the  white 
of  egg.  Carbon-dioxide  gas  is  the  most  common  leavening 
agent  and  is  supplied  by  the  action  of  yeast  or  of  certain 
chemicals.  The  chemicals  used  are  baking  soda  and  some 
acid.  The  acid  may  be  one  of  several  combined  with  the 
soda  to  form  a  so-called  baking  powder,  or  the  acid  may 
be  supplied  in  the  cooking  materials,  such  as  sour  milk  or 

99 


ioo  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

molasses.  The  moisture  used  in  all  these  mixtures  is 
expanded  into  steam  during  the  cooking  process,  and 
this  also  helps  to  make  the  mixture  light. 

While  flour,  water,  and  a  leavening  agent  are  necessary 
to  any  flour  mixture,  the  resulting  product  would  not  be 
very  palatable,  and  therefore  other  materials  are  added  to 
modify  both  flavor  and  texture.  Salt  is  necessary  in  prac- 
tically every  case.  Milk,  eggs,  fat,  and  sugar  are  commonly 
used,  and  all  these  add  to  the  food  value.  Other  materials, 
such  as  spices  and  extracts,  are  valued  for  their  flavor. 
Eggs  not  only  serve  as  a  means  for  introducing  air  into  the 
mixture,  but,  on  heating,  the  albumen  of  the  egg  hardens 
and  aids  in  forming  a  framework  for  the  mixture.  Fat 
affects  the  texture,  tenderness,  and  flavor  in  proportion  to 
the  quantity  used.  Sugar  is  valued  for  its  flavor,  but  it 
also  affects  texture.  The  proportion  of  liquid  to  flour  in 
these  mixtures  varies  greatly.  Thin  mixtures  are  called 
batters ;  the  thicker  ones  are  called  doughs. 

Practically  all  flour  mixtures  are  baked,  although  fat  and 
steam  are  used  in  some  cases  as  the  cooking  mediums. 
In  applying  heat  to  any  food  its  composition  should  be  kept 
in  mind.  This  is  rather  simple  when  we  are  cooking  eggs 
alone  or  starch  alone,  but  where  different  substances  are 
combined,  it  is  necessary  to  regard  the  material  which  pre- 
dominates, and  a  compromise  is  usually  necessary.  In 
most  of  the  flour  mixtures  starch  is  present  in  large  quan- 
tity, and  this  calls  for  thorough  cooking  at  a  high  tempera- 
ture. In  mixtures  in  which  a  large  amount  of  egg  is  used, 
as  in  sponge  cake,  a  low  temperature  is  required  and  the 
time  of  baking  is  prolonged. 


I          '  ,  o  '''»'•>*'»'»''  ' 

FLOUR  MIXTURES-  ,  1'Q*  ' 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES 


Repeat  oven  tests  as  given  in  Chapter  I. 

II.  Baking  Temperatures 

Discuss  the  baking  temperatures  which  will  be  desirable  for 
the  mixtures  in  the  following  exercises  : 

III.  Batters  with  Air  and  Steam  as  Leavening  Agents 

i.  Popov  ers 

i  c  milk  i  T  fat 

i  c  flour  it  salt 


Mix  salt  and  flour  ;  gradually  add  milk,  in  order  to  keep 
mixture  smooth  ;  then  add  melted  fat  and  unbeaten  egg.  Beat 
thoroughly  with  Dover  egg-beater  or  spoon.  Pour  at  once  into 
hot  gem  pans  and  bake  for  from  40  to  45  minutes  in  a  moderate 
oven.  They  should  be  served  as  soon  as  cooked. 

All  materials  and  utensils  should  be  ready  and  fire  lighted 
before  mixing  is  started. 

2.  Sponge  cake 

Yolks  2  eggs  Salt 

Whites  2  eggs  Lemon  rind 

sugar  1  1  lemon  juice 

flour 


Beat  yolks  until  lemon  colored  and  thick.  Add  sugar  gradu- 
ally and  continue  beating.  Then  add  lemon  juice,  rind,  and 
whites  of  eggs  beaten  until  stiff  and  dry.  When  white  is  par- 
tially mixed  with  yolk,  carefully  cut  and  fold  in  flour  mixed  and 
sifted  with  salt.  Bake  in  an  unbuttered  pan  in  a  slow  oven  for 
from  35  to  45  minutes. 

What  makes  this  mixture  light  ? 


"102  •  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

3.    White  sponge  cake 

|c  white  of  egg  £t  cream  of  tartar 

fc  granulated  sugar  Flavoring 

flour 


Sift  flour  once  before  measuring  and  several  times  afterward. 
Beat  egg  until  very  stiff,  adding  the  cream  of  tartar,  and  gradu- 
ally beat  in  the  sugar.  Then  add  flavoring  and  carefully  fold  in 
the  flour.  Do  not  stir  or  beat  more  than  is  necessary  to  mix. 
Pour  into  an  unbuttered  pan  and  bake  for  from  40  to  50  minutes 
in  a  very  slow  oven. 

IV.  Baking  Soda 

Acid  of  some  sort  must  be  added  to  soda  to  free  carbon  diox- 
ide. Molasses  contains  a  mixture  of  organic  acids  ;  sour  milk 
contains  lactic  acid. 

1.  Into  a  tablespoon  of  sour  milk  stir  a  pinch  of  soda.  Watch 
results.    Explain. 

2.  Repeat,  using  molasses. 

V.  Batters  with  Soda  and  Sour  Milk  or  Molasses  as  Leavening 
Agents 

i  .    Gingerbread 

i  c  molasses  i  egg                             ^c  butter 

\  c  sour  milk  i^t  soda                        2  1  ginger 

2C  flour  -Jt  salt 

Sift  together  all  dry  ingredients.  Cream  the  butter,  add 
molasses  and  beaten  egg,  and  then  add  to  this  the  flour  and 
milk  in  turn.  Beat  the  whole  thoroughly  and  turn  into  a  greased 
pan.  Bake  in  a  slow  oven. 

2.  Sour-milk  griddlecakes 

2-J-c  flour  2  c  sour  milk  \\.  salt 

soda  i  egg 


FLOUR  MIXTURES  103 

Mix  and  sift  dry  ingredients.  Add  these  to  the  milk,  beat 
well,  and  lastly  add  the  beaten  egg.  Cook  on  a  hot  griddle.  No 
grease  is  required  if  an  aluminium  griddle  is  used. 

3.    Corn  bread 

i  c  corn  meal  i  T  melted  butter 

i  c  sour  milk  \c  sifted  flour 

\\.  salt  1 1  baking  powder 

1 1  soda  i  egg 

Sift  together  all  dry  ingredients,  stir  these  into  the  milk,  and 
then  add  butter  and  beaten  egg.  Bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 

VI.  Baking  Powder 

Baking  powder  is  a  mixture  of  an  acid  and  an  alkaline  con- 
stituent which  will  yield  a  gas  in  the  presence  of  moisture. 
The  alkaline  constituent  is  almost  always  the  ordinary  baking 
soda,  which  is  sodium  bicarbonate.  The  acid  constituent  varies 
with  the  brand  of  the  baking  powder,  and  may  be  a  phosphate, 
tartrate,  or  alum  salt.  The  commercial  baking  powder  contains 
a  third  substance,  usually  starch,  which  tends  to  absorb  the 
moisture  from  the  air  and  prevent  premature  development  of 
gas  from  the  other  two  substances.  Oftentimes  in  the  house- 
hold baking  soda  and  cream  of  tartar  are  added  to  a  flour 
mixture.  This  serves  the  same  purpose  as  baking  powder. 

1.  Mix  Jt  soda  and  ^t  cream  of  tartar.    Stir  this  into  a  half 
glass  of  water  and  observe  results. 

2.  Stir  1 1  baking  powder  into  a  half  glass  of  water  and 
observe.    (Save  this  for  4.) 

3.  Half  fill  two  glasses  with  water.    Into  the  first  stir  1 1  of 
a  tartrate  baking  powder ;  into  the  second  stir  1 1  of  a  phosphate 
baking  powder.    Do  you  note  any  difference  in  the  rapidity  of 
action  ? 

4.  Boil  the  mixture  left  from  2  and  note  results.    Explain. 


104  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

VII.  Batters  with  Baking  Powder  as  a  Leavening  Agent 

1 .  Griddlecakes 

i:J-c  flour  i  egg 

^t  salt  2 1  baking  powder 

ic  milk 

Sift  dry  ingredients,  stir  into  the  milk,  and  lastly  add  the 
beaten  egg.  Cook  on  a  hot  griddle. 

2.  Muffins 

2  c  flour  i  c  milk 

1  egg  4-t  baking  powder 
-^-t  salt  2  T  melted  butter 
2T  sugar 

Sift  dry  ingredients,  stir  into  milk,  and  add  melted  butter 
and  beaten  egg.  Beat  the  mixture  thoroughly  and  pour  into 
greased  pans.  Bake  in  a  quick  oven. 

3.  White  cake 

^c  butter  4t  baking  powder 

2  c  sugar  Whites  5  eggs 
i  c  water  1 1  vanilla 

3C  flour 

Cream  butter,  add  sugar,  and  thoroughly  mix.  Sift  flour  and 
baking  powder  several  times,  add  this,  alternating  with  the  water, 
to  the  first  mixture,  and  then  add  vanilla.  Fold  in  the  stiffly 
beaten  whites  of  eggs  and  pour  into  a  greased  pan.  Bake  in  a 
moderate  oven. 
Boiled  icing 

i  c  sugar  Lemon  juice  or 

^c  water  flavoring 

White  i  egg  -j-t  cream  of  tartar 

Cook  sugar,  cream  of  tartar,  and  water  together  until  sirup 
will  thread.  Pour  in  a  fine  stream  into  well-beaten  white  of  egg, 
beating  until  smooth  and  thick  enough  to  spread  upon  the  cake. 


FLOUR  MIXTURES  105 

Flavor  and  pour  over  cake,  spreading  with  spatula.  If  beaten 
too  long,  thin  with  a  few  drops  of  lemon  juice  or  boiling  water 
and  wet  the  knife  in  cold  water.  Ice  the  cake  and  calculate  the 
cost  of  cake  and  icing. 

VIII.  Doughs 

The  difference  between  doughs  and  batters  is  in  the  amount 
of  moisture  used  with  the  flour.  Batters  have  one  or  two  meas- 
ures of  flour  to  one  of  liquid.  Doughs  have  about  three  measures 
of  flour  to  one  of  liquid. 

i.  Biscuit 

ic  flour  f  c  liquid,  equal  parts 
2  1  baking  powder  water  and  milk 

salt  i|T  fat 


Sift  dry  ingredients,  work  fat  into  flour,  and  gradually  add 
the  liquid,  mixing  into  a  very  soft  dough  just  stiff  enough  to  roll. 
Turn  onto  a  floured  board,  roll  to  \  inch  in  thickness,  cut,  put 
into  a  floured  pan,  and  bake  in  a  quick  oven. 

2.  Sliortciike 

2C  flour  i  T  sugar 

4t  baking  powder  Jc  fat 

£t  salt  f  c  milk 

Mix  the  same  as  biscuit,  roll  about  J  inch  thick,  and  fit  into  a 
pan  for  baking.  When  done,  split  and  spread  with  butter,  cover 
with  crushed  and  sweetened  fruit.  Add  the  top  layer  of  short- 
cake and  cover  generously  with  fruit  and  juice  before  serving. 

3.  Doughnuts 

^c  sugar  3t  baking  powder 

i  T  butter  in  i  \  c  flour 

Jc  milk  it  salt 

i  egg  cinnamon 

nutmeg 


106  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

Beat  thoroughly  butter,  sugar,  and  egg.  Sift  dry  ingredients 
and  add,  alternately  with  milk,  to  the  first  mixture.  Add  enough 
more  flour  to  make  a  soft  dough,  turn  onto  a  floured  board, 
roll  to  ^  inch  in  thickness,  cut,  and  cook  in  deep  fat. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

What  is  the  leavening  agent  in  each  of  the  foregoing  illustrations  ? 

What  furnishes  the  moisture  ? 

Why  use  moderate  or  low  heat  for  sponge  cakes  ? 

Calculate  the  cost  of  both  sponge  cakes  and  the  number  of  people 
served  by  each. 

Suggest  a  use  for  the  yolks  left  from  the  white  sponge  cake. 

Why  are  egg  and  white  flour  used  in  making  corn  bread  ? 

Is  there  any  objection  to  the  use  of  griddlecakes  ? 

Does  the  gingerbread  brown  more  easily  than  the  corn  bread? 
Explain. 

Calculate  the  cost  of  corn  bread  and  of  gingerbread  for  a  family 
of  six. 

Compare  the  cost  of  sponge  cakes  and  butter  cakes. 

Calculate  the  cost  of  pound  cake.    Is  this  expensive  ?    Explain. 

Calculate  the  cost  of  muffins  for  a  family  of  six. 

How  may  an  oven  that  is  too  hot  affect  a  cake  mixture?  too 
slow  an  oven? 

Which  needs  the  greater  heat,  a  layer  or  loaf  cake?  a  butter  or 
sponge  cake  ?  a  molasses  or  plain  cake  ? 

How  determine  when  a  cake  is  done? 

When  add  beaten  whites,  and  why  ? 

Suggest  possible  causes  for  the  following : 
Cracks  across  top  of  cake  in  baking. 
Coarse-grained  cake. 
Tough  cake. 

How  prepare  pans?    Explain. 

Suggest  methods  for  reducing  heat  in  an  oven  that  is  too  hot. 

How  much  should  a  cake  increase  in  bulk  while  baking? 

What  effect  has  beating  on  the  texture  of  the  cake  ? 

Why  will  a  cake  that  is  carelessly  moved  in  baking  frequently  fall  ? 


FLOUR  MIXTURES  107 

How  care  for  a  cake  on  removal  from  oven  ? 
Discuss  order  of  adding  ingredients  in  mixing  a  cake. 
When  add  flour  ?  When  add  eggs  ?    Explain. 

References 

WILEY.    Foods  and  their  Adulteration. 

LEACH.    Food  Inspection  and  Analysis. 

LEACH.      '  Baking    Powders,"    Bulletin    No.   7/9,   Maine    Agricultural 

Experiment    Station. 

WILEY.    "  Cereals  and  Cereal  Products,"  Bulletin  No.  /j,  Part  IX. 
FARMER.    Boston  Cooking  School  Cook  Book. 
HILL.    Practical  Cooking  and  Serving. 
VULTE  and  GOODELL.  Household  Chemistry. 


CHAPTER   XIX 

BREAD 

Bread  is  a  dough  made  of  flour,  salt,  liquid,  and  yeast. 
The  flour  of  wheat  is  used  more  commonly  than  that  of 
any  other  cereal.  The  flavor  of  wheat  is  desirable,  and  its 
gluten  makes  it  suitable  for  bread.  If  the  whole  kernel  is 
ground,  as  in  graham  flour,  the  flavor  is  very  pronounced  ; 
if  less  of  the  bran  is  retained,  as  in  whole-wheat  flour,  the 
flavor  is  milder.  The  range  of  flavor  in  the  ordinary  white 
flours  of  the  same  grade  is  not  so  great,  but  there  is  a  choice. 

It  was  discovered  long  ago  that  a  dough,  or  mixture  of 
flour  and  water,  would  undergo  some  changes  on  standing, 
and  the  character  of  the  loaf  on  baking  was  consequently 
different.  This  change  we  know  to  be  fermentation,  due 
to  the  development  of  certain  living  forms  in  the  dough. 
Instead  of  depending  upon  chance  for  these  living  forms 
to  make  the  dough  light,  we  add  yeast  to  the  dough  at 
the  start.  The  yeast  is  a  one-celled  plant  of  microscopic 
size.  Like  any  other  plant,  the  yeast  requires  the  proper 
conditions  for  growth-  -namely,  warmth,  moisture,  and 
food.  These  favorable  conditions  are  found  in  bread  dough, 
and  as  the  yeast  grows  there  is  developed  carbon  dioxide, 
which  gas  lightens  the  dough. 

Yeast  may  be  purchased  in  the  form  of  dry  cakes,  or  as 
compressed  yeast.  Frequently  these  are  used  to  make  a 

so-called   '  starter,"  which  is  kept  and  used  from  time  to 

1 08 


BREAD  109 

time  in  the  household.  The  starter,  or  liquid  yeast,  affords 
a  favorable  place  for  the  growth  of  other  living  forms  than 
yeast,  and  these  often  are  the  cause  of  sourness  or  a  very 
poor  flavor  in  the  bread.  Since  the  same  conditions  which 
favor  the  growth  of  yeast  favor  the  growth  of  other  plants, 
it  is  very  necessary  to  be  careful  that  all  the  materials  are 
in  good  condition  and  that  all  the  utensils  are  clean.  The 
amount  and  the  condition  of  the  yeast  used  in  making  bread 
determine  the  time  necessary  for  the  process.  The  yeast 


TYPICAL  LOAVES  OF  BREAD 

plant  develops  very  rapidly  if  under  favorable  conditions 
and  will  leaven  a  large  amount  of  dough  in  a  comparatively 
short  time.  If  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  bread  in  a  very 
short  time,  as  much  as  two  cakes  of  compressed  yeast  may 
be  added  to  a  small  loaf  without  injuring  the  flavor  of  the 
bread.  In  the  ordinary  household  process  such  an  amount 
would  be  unnecessary  and  extravagant,  except  under  unusual 
circumstances.  Bread  made  in  a  short  time  with  compressed 
yeast  is  familiarly  known  as  "  short  process  '  bread.  The 
more  common  custom  is  to  allow  a  longer  time  for  making 
bread.  The  yeast  is  mixed  with  a  small  portion  of  flour 


no 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


and  water.  Sugar  is  usually  added  to  this  mixture,  and 
oftentimes  potatoes  are  used.  This  mixture  is  known  as 
a  sponge  and  affords  favorable  conditions  for  the  devel- 
opment of  the  yeast  plant.  The  sponge  stands  for  a 
number  of  hours  (usually  overnight)  and  is  then  mixed 
with  more  liquid  and  flour  to  make  the  dough.  Bread 
made  in  this  way  is  known  as  '  long-process '  bread. 


UTENSILS  USED  IN  BREAD  MAKING,  SHOWING  ALSO  METHOD 

OF  MEASURING 

The  liquid  used  in  making  bread  may  be  water,  milk,  a 
mixture  of  the  two,  whey,  or  potato  water.  Potatoes  furnish 
a  good  medium  for  the  growth  of  yeast,  and  so  their  use 
is  frequently  favored.  Fat  may  or  may  not  be  added.  Sugar, 
in  small  amount,  hastens  the  activity  of  the  yeast  and  should 
be  added  early  in  the  process. 

The  object  in  kneading  bread  is  to  mix  it  thoroughly 
and  to  distribute  the  gas  evenly,  so  making  a  finer  texture. 
Repeated  rising  of  the  bread  and  kneading  down  before 
making  into  a  loaf  makes  a  somewhat  finer  texture  and  a 


BREAD  1  1  1 

whiter  loaf,  but  at  the  expense  of  the  finer  flavor  of  the 
bread.  Very  good  bread  can  be  made  with  comparatively 
little  kneading. 

Bread  is  baked  to  kill  the  yeast  plant,  to  cook  the  starch 
thoroughly,  and  to  make  a  brown  and  palatable  crust.  It  is 
desirable  to  bake  each  loaf  in  a  separate  pan  which  is 
small  enough  to  insure  the  thorough  baking  of  the  loaf. 
A  small  loaf  of  bread  in  a  single  pan  should  bake  not  less 
than  forty-five  minutes.  If  dough  has  doubled  in  bulk,  it 
should  be  put  into  a  very  hot  oven  and  the  heat  gradually 
reduced  until  the  baking  is  finished.  If  the  dough  is  put 
into  the  oven  before  its  bulk  has  doubled,  the  heat  should 
be  more  moderate  at  first  in  order  that  the  loaf  may  rise 
sufficiently. 

There  are  so  many  notions  with  regard  to  the  desirable 
qualities  of  bread  that  it  is  a  help  to  use  some  standard 
for  judging  it.  The  following  score  card,  accredited  to 
Miss  Isabel  Bevier  at  the  University  of  Illinois,  has  been 
widely  used  and  found  helpful  in  establishing  standards. 

BREAD  SCORK  CARD 


Flavor  .........  35 

Lightness  ........  15 

Grain  and  Texture   .....  20 

Color 


Crust  < 


Depth 
Texture 


10 


_       ,   ,  Color       1 
Crumb^  >•       ....        10 

LMoistureJ 

Shape  and  Size 10 

Total  i  oo 


H2  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

1.  The  flavor  is  determined  by  taste  and  odor.    Bread 
should  have  the  good  nutty  sweet  flavor  of  the  grain.    A 
sour  or  yeasty  smell  or  taste  is  not  allowable. 

2.  Lightness  is  determined  by  the  relation  of  size  and 
volume.     The   bread    should    be    neither    overlight    nor 
underlight. 

3.  Grain  and  texture  are  judged  by  the  fineness  and 
tenderness  of  the  loaf.    There  should  be  even  distribution 
of  the  gas,   making  fine  and  uniform  holes.     No  heavy 
streaks  should  occur. 

4.  The  crust  should  be  an  even,  yellowish  brown  in 
color,  about  one  fourth  of  an  inch  in  depth,  and  should 
be  crisp. 

5.  The    crumb    should    be    creamy    in    color,    neither 
excessively  dry  and  crumbly  nor  doughy. 

6.  The  loaf  should   be  shapely  and  small  enough  to 
be  thoroughly  cooked. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

I.  Effect  of  Temperatures  upon  Yeast.    (Demonstration) 

1.  Blend  one  yeast  cake  thoroughly  in  a  pint  of  water  to 
which  has  been  added  i  T  sugar. 

2.  Freeze  a  portion  of  the  mixture,  and  then  allow  it  to  thaw 
at  room  temperature. 

3.  Boil  another  portion  and  cool  to  room  temperature. 

4.  Take  another  portion  at  room  temperature. 

5.  Chill  a  fourth  portion. 

Fill  wide-mouthed  bottles  from  each  of  the  above  portions 
and  invert  them  on  plates.  Keep  2,  3,  and  4  in  a  warm  room, 
and  5  packed  in  ice  during  the  remainder  of  the  laboratory 
period.  Explain  results  observed. 


BREAD  i i 

II.  Long- Process  Bread 

i  c  boiled  water  or  i  T  sugar 

Jc  each  of  milk  and  water  ft  salt 

\-\  cake  dry  yeast  or  iT  fat 

•J- £  cake  compressed  yeast  3  c  flour 


In  making  long-process  bread  less  yeast  is  required  than  for 
the  short  process  because  the  time  is  so  much  longer.  Good 
long-process  bread  is  made  by  different  methods,  but  the 
following  is  typical. 

A  sponge  is  made  by  adding  sugar,  yeast,  and  flour  to  the 
liquid.  Scald  the  liquid,  and  soften  the  yeast  in  2  T  warm  water. 
When  the  liquid  is  lukewarm,  add  the  yeast  and  sugar  and 
enough  flour  to  make  a  thin  batter.  This  is  set  aside  in  a  warm 
place  overnight,  during  which  time  the  yeast  becomes  active 
and  the  sponge  is  light.  In  the  morning  add  all  the  other  in- 
gredients, mixing  thoroughly.  When  enough  flour  is  added  so 
that  the  dough  may  be  handled,  turn  it  onto  the  board  and 
knead  until  it  is  smooth,  sticks  neither  to  the  board  nor  hands, 
and  air  bubbles  appear  near  the  surface  of  the  dough.  Put  the 
dough  into  a  greased  bowl  and  set  in  a  warm  place.  When  the 
dough  has  doubled  in  bulk,  make  it  into  loaves  and  put  into 
greased  pans.  Again  set  the  dough  to  rise  in  a  warm  place. 
When  the  loaves  have  doubled  in  bulk,  put  into  a  hot  oven 
and  bake  for  from  40  to  50  minutes.  The  temperature  of  the 
oven  should  be  lowered  during  the  baking  process.  When  the 
loaf  is  baked,  remove  it  from  the  pan  at  once  and  cool  it  in  a 
position  which  allows  full  circulation  of  air  about  the  bread. 

III.   Short-Process  Bread 


scalded  milk  ^-c  boiled  water 

i  T  lard  or  butter  ft  salt 

3  c  flour  i  T  sugar 

1-2  compressed  yeast  cakes  in  2t  warm  water 


114  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

Put  butter  or  lard,  sugar,  and  salt  in  bread  bowl;  pour  on  it 
the  hot  liquid  (milk  and  water).  When  this  is  lukewarm,  add 
the  softened  yeast  cake ;  then  add  enough  flour  to  make  a  stiff 
batter,  beating  thoroughly.  Add  the  remaining  flour ;  mix  and 
turn  onto  the  floured  board.  Knead  until  the  dough  will  stick 
neither  to  hands  nor  to  board  and  bubbles  may  be  seen  under  the 
surface.  Grease  the  bowl  and  return  the  dough  to  it.  Set  in  a 
warm  place  until  the  dough  has  doubled  in  bulk ;  then  shape 
into  loaves.  Let  this  double  its  bulk  again  and  bake. 

IV.  Whole-wheat,  Graham,  or  Rye  Bread 

Make  a  sponge  as  for  long-process  bread.  When  light,  use 
entire-wheat,  graham,  or  rye  flour  to  make  a  soft  dough.  Make 
into  loaves  and  let  rise  until  thoroughly  light.  Bake  with  mod- 
erate heat  i  hour  or  longer.  Sugar  to  sweeten  may  be  added  if 
desired. 

V.  Parker  House  Rolls 

Roll  bread  dough  to  ^  inch  in  thickness  and  cut  with  biscuit 
cutter.  Crease  each  piece  in  the  middle,  brush  one  half  with 
melted  butter,  fold,  pressing  edges  together.  Place  in  a  greased 
pan,  cover,  let  rise,  and  bake. 

VI.  Cinnamon  Rolls 

Roll  bread  dough  to  \  inch  in  thickness,  spread  with  butter, 
and  sprinkle  with  a  mixture  of  f  sugar  and  -J-  cinnamon.  Roll 
up  like  a  jelly  roll  and  cut  into  f -inch  pieces.  Place  in  greased 
pan  flat  side  down.  Let  rise  and  bake. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

Calculate  cost  of  baker's  bread  per  pound. 
Calculate  cost  of  homemade  bread  per  pound. 
Judge  both  samples  by  the  score  card. 
Why  is  bread  kneaded  ? 
When  is  it  desirable  to  use  a  sponge? 


BREAD  I I 5 

What  determines  the  amount  of  yeast  used  ? 

What  might  cause  sour  bread  ? 

What  is  accomplished  in  the  baking  of  bread? 

What  is  "  jug  "  or  "  starter  "  yeast? 

What  kind  of  yeast  would  you  use  ? 

What  is  salt-rising  bread  ? 

Examine  yeasts  under  the  microscope,  and  make  drawings. 

« 

References 

ATWATER.    "  Bread  and  Bread   Making,"   Farmers'  Uidletin  No.  389, 

U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
SNYDER.    "  Studies  on    Bread   and  Bread    Making,"  Kitllelin  No.  67, 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
SNYDER.    "  Studies  on  the  Digestibility  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Bread," 

Bulletins  Nos.  126,  143,  756,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.S. 

Department  of  Agriculture. 
WARDALL.     "  Relation  of  Yeast  to  Flavor  in  Bread,"   The  Journal  of 

Home  Economics,  February,  1910. 
JAGO.    Bread  and  Bread  Making. 
HUTCHISON.    Food  and  Dietetics. 
SNYDER.    Human  Foods. 
SIMMONS.    The  Book  of  Bread. 

BEVIER.    Some  Points  in  the  Making  and  Judging  of  Bread. 
WOOD.    Story  of  a  Loaf  of  Bread. 


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119 


CHAPTER  XX 

FOOD  REQUIREMENTS 

In  order  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  human  body,  the 
diet  should  contain  the  various  nutrients,  or  food  principles, 
in  proper  amount  and  kind,  and  should  furnish  the  neces- 
sary energy.  Proteins,  fats,  and  carbohydrates  are  all 
capable  of  furnishing  energy,  and  so  enable  the  body  to 
perform  its  work  -  -  both  internal  and  external  -  -  and  keep 
it  warm.  Energy  cannot  be  measured  in  terms  of  weight 
or  of  dimension  but  in  terms  of  heat  or  of  work  performed. 
The  unit  of  measure  is  the  calorie,  which  is  the  amount 
of  heat  needed  to  raise  one  pound  of  water  four  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  or  the  work  necessary  to  raise  one  ton  1.53  feet. 
The  calorific  value  of  any  substance  is  determined  by  burning 
a  given  weight  in  the  calorimeter  and  determining  the  result- 
ing heat.  Protein  and  carbohydrate  have  about  one  half  the 
calorific,  or  fuel,  value  of  the  same  weight  of  fat.  If  the 
amount  of  protein,  fat,  and  carbohydrate  in  the  food  is 
known,  the  fuel  value  of  the  diet  may  easily  be  calculated. 

Many  studies  of  food  requirements  have  been  made,  and 
the  results  have  led  to  the  formation  of  so-called  "  standard 
dietaries."  Observation  of  the  food  eaten  by  people  under 
normal  conditions  has  frequently  been  made  and  records 
kept  of  the  food  consumed.  Since  these  earlier  observa- 
tions of  food  customs,  or  habits,  very  careful  experiments 
have  been  conducted,  investigating  food  requirements. 

1 20 


FOOD  REQUIREMENTS  121 

Dr.  Langworthy,  Chief  of  Nutrition  Investigations,  says 
that,  for  adults  of  moderate  activity,  the  results  '  do  not 
differ  very  markedly  from  a  general  average  of  100  grams 
of  protein  and  3000  calories  of  energy,  and  that  it  is  fair 
to  say  that,  although  foods  may  differ  very  decidedly,  the 
nutritive  value  of  the  diet  in  different  regions  and  under 
different  circumstances  is  very  much  the  same  for  a  like 
amount  of  muscular  work." 

It  is  fairly  easy  to  determine  the  need  of  the  body  for 
energy  under  given  conditions,  and  to  some  extent  fat, 
carbohydrate,  and  protein  may  replace  each  other  for  this 
purpose.  Protein,  it  must  be  remembered,  serves  two  pur- 
poses in  the  body ;  it  builds  and  repairs  tissue,  and  also 
furnishes  energy.  While  it  is  necessary  to  supply  enough 
protein  to  build  tissue,  it  is  desirable  to  depend  quite  largely 
upon  the  fat  and  carbohydrate  for  energy.  If  protein  is 
eaten  in  too  large  amounts,  it  causes  physiological  disturb- 
ances and  frequently  makes  an  undue  tax  upon  the  body. 
In  diseases,  such  as  rheumatism  and  gout,  the  amount  of 
protein  eaten  is  restricted,  and  meat  is  frequently  forbidden. 
There  is  a  great  difference  of  opinion  among  students  of 
nutrition  as  to  the  desirable  amount  of  protein  in  the  diet. 

The  factors  most  affecting  total  food  requirement  are 
work,  age,  and  size.  In  the  adult,  muscular  exercise  or 
work  has  the  most  important  influence  upon  diet.  The 
following  estimates  of  the  calorific  need  for  the  day  are 
given  by  Atwater  : 

Man  without  muscular  work 2700  calories 

Man  with  light  muscular  work      ....  3000  calories 

Man  with  moderate  muscular  work   .     .     .  3500  calories 

Man  at  hard  muscular  work     ,     ,     ,     ,     ,  4500  calories 


122  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

Lumbermen  who  engage  in  very  heavy  work  and  in  the 
open  air  have  been  known  to  use  as  much  as  6000  calories 
and  more. 

* 

'  In  general,  it  appears  that  the  food  requirements  of 
men  and  women  of  equal  activity  are  in  proportion  to  their 
body  weights.  Women,  on  the  average,  weigh  about  0.8 
as  much  as  men,  and  it  is  commonly  assumed  that  if 
equally  active  their  food  requirements  will  stand  in  the  same 
proportion.  In  apportioning  the  food  of  a  family  to  its 
different  members  it  has  become  customary  to  make  use 
of  some  such  conventional  factors  as  the  following : ' 

Under  i  year.     .     .     .     .  100  calories  per  kilogram 

1-2  years 100-90  calories  per  kilogram 

2-5  years 90-80  calories  per  kilogram 

6-9  years 80-70  calories  per  kilogram 

10-13  years 70-60  calories  per  kilogram 

14-17  years 60-45  calories  per  kilogram 

Sherman,  "Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition" 

Von  Noorden  suggests  for  adults  the  following  allow- 
ances : 

At  complete  rest   .     .     .  .  3°-35  calories  per  kilogram 

With  light  exercise    .     .  .  35-40  calories  per  kilogram 

With  moderate  exercise  .  .  40-45  calories  per  kilogram 

With  hard  muscular  labor  .  45-60  calories  per  kilogram 

For  the  aged  these  figures  should  be  lowered  by  one  fourth. 
The  higher  calorific  allowance  for  children  is  due  to  their 
great  muscular  activity,  growth,  and  more  intense  physio- 
logical activities. 


FOOD  REQUIREMENTS  123 

ONE-HUNDRED-CALORIE  PORTIONS 

It  is  frequently  desirable  to  compare  foods  on  the  basis 
of  fuel  value,  and  the  amounts  of  foods  shown  in  the  table 
on  the  following  page  will  yield  approximately  one  hun- 
dred calories.  These  amounts  are  frequently  referred  to 
as  one-hundred-calorie  portions. 

The  fuel  value  and  composition  of  all  ordinary  foods 
may  be  determined  by  consulting  "  Chemical  Composition 
of  American  Food  Materials,"  Bulletin  No.  28 \  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations. 

FOOD  FOR  THE  INFANT 

For  infants  the  only  proper  food  is  milk.  If  artificial 
feeding  of  an  infant  is  necessary,  a  great  responsibility  rests 
upon  the  one  who  selects  the  food,  for  it  is  well  known  that 
the  death  rate  is  much  higher  where  artificial  feeding  is 
employed.  While  the  composition  of  milk  is  important, 
its  cleanliness  is  a  more  vital  factor.  Ordinary  milk  con- 
tains enormous  numbers  of  bacteria,  and  some  of  these  may 
be  dangerous.  It  is  desirable  to  obtain  a  milk  as  free  from 
germs  as  possible,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  know  the 
source  and  care  of  the  milk  supply.  In  the  city  market 
the  milk  is  graded  according  to  cleanliness.  The  cleanest, 
highest  grade  is  known  as  certified  milk,  which  sells  from 
fourteen  to  sixteen  cents  a  quart.  Sometimes  the  price  is 
even  higher.  Certified  milk  is  used  almost  solely  for  in- 
fants and  invalids.  The  next  grade  is  known  as  inspected 
milk,  and  this  is  reasonably  safe  for  ordinary  use.  For  both 
certified  and  inspected  milk,  the  cows  are  tested  for  tuber- 
culosis, and  all  the  conditions  of  production  are  watched. 


124 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


ONE-HUNDRED-CALORIE  PORTIONS 


FOOD 


QUANTITY 


CONSTITUENTS  FOR  WHICH  THESE 
ARE  CHIEFLY  VALUED 


Almonds 
Apples 

Bacon 
Bananas 
Beans  (dried) 
Beef  (round) 
Bread 
Butter 
Cabbage 
Cheese 
Chocolate 
(bitter) 
Corn  meal 
Cream 
Dates 
Eggs 

Milk 
Oatmeal 

Olives 
Oranges 

Pickles 

Pork  chops 
Potatoes 
Prunes 
Raisins 
Rice 
Sugar 
Tomatoes 
(canned) 


12-15 

1-2 

Small  serving 

i 

One  serving  (when  cooked) 

Small  serving  (i^  in.  sq.) 

i  slice 

i  square  or  ball 

£  small  head 

Small  cube  (i^  inches) 

^  square 
i  cup 
^-|  cup 

3-4 
i 


f  cup 


£  cup  (cooked) 

7-8 
i  large 


1 5    cucumbers 
sized) 

1  very  small 

2  small 

3-4 

15-20 

|  cup  (dry) 

2  tablespoons 

about  i  pint 


(medium 


Fat  and  protein 
Carbohydrate,  mineral  mat- 
ter, and  bulk 
Fat 

Carbohydrate 
Protein  and  carbohydrate 
Protein  and  fat 
Carbohydrate  and  protein 
Fat 

Bulk  and  carbohydrate 
Protein  and  fat 

Fat 

Protein  and  fat 

Fat 

Carbohydrate 

Protein,  fat,  and  mineral 
matter 

Protein,  fat,  carbohydrate, 
and  mineral  matter 

Carbohydrate,  mineral  mat- 
ter, and  bulk 

Fat 

Mineral  matter  and  carbo- 
hydrate 

Flavor 

Fat  and  protein 

Carbohydrate  and  bulk 

Carbohydrate 

Carbohydrate 

Carbohydrate 

Carbohydrate 

Flavor 


FOOD  REQUIREMENTS  125 

The  third  grade  is  known  as  market  milk  and  is  much  less 
rigidly  inspected.  This  grading  of  milk  is  a  good  illustration 
of  the  fact  that  cleanliness  costs  money.  For  the  feeding 
of  infants  the  very  best  milk  should  be  used.  This  is 
frequently  modified  to  suit  the  age  and  needs  of  the  infant 
by  changing  its  composition.  Water,  milk  sugar,  and  cream 
are  very  commonly  added  to  cow's  milk. 

Frequent  attempts  have  been  made  to  prepare  artificial 
foods  for  infants,  and  many  are  found  on  the  market. 
Some  of  these  manufactured  foods  are  lacking  in  mineral 
salts  and  some  contain  starch  -  -  a  carbohydrate  which  does 
not  occur  in  milk  and  which  is  entirely  unsuited  to  a  young 
infant.  In  general,  the  proportion  and  nature  of  the  nutri- 
ents differ  from  those  of  milk  and  frequently  they  are  not 
good  substitutes  for  milk.  Many  times  children  apparently 
thrive  on  these  prepared  foods,  but  usually  they  are  large 
and  flabby,  and  have  less  ability  to  resist  disease  than 
normally  fed  children.  Whether  the  food  of  an  infant  is 
natural  or  artificial,  it  should  be  given  with  great  regularity. 

During  the  second  year  solid  food  may  be  introduced 
into  a  child's  diet,  but  great  care  should  be  used  in  its 
selection.  Milk  will  still  be  the  basis  of  the  diet,  and  suit- 
able materials  may  be  added,  such  as  a  soft-poached  egg, 
thoroughly  dried  and  toasted  bread,  orange  juice,  baked 
apple,  thoroughly  cooked  prunes,  and  cereals,  junket,  and 
rice  pudding.  Sugar  should  be  used  very  sparingly,  and 
should  not  be  permitted  with  the  cereal  or  fruit,  for  the 
sugar  habit  is  easily  formed,  and  the  easiest  way  to  avoid 
its  overuse  by  the  child  is  not  to  use  it  the  first  time.  Only 
the  pulp  of  the  fruit  should  be  used,  and  if  the  cereal  is 
coarse,  it  may  be  put  through  a  strainer  to  remove  a  portion 


126  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

of  the  cellulose.  During  the  second  year  the  food  should 
be  given  in  four  or  five  meals  at  regular  intervals.  The 
second  year  of  a  child's  life  is  an  important  one  for  its 
future  welfare.  Many  of  the  health  disturbances  arise  from 
improper  food.  The  fact  that  some  children  thrive  in  spite 
of  being  improperly  fed  is  no  reason  for  taking  the  risk 
with  other  children. 

After  the  second  year  fruits  and  vegetables  may  be  sup- 
plied in  greater  variety,  but  meat  should  be  sparingly  used 
for  the  first  eight  years.  Eggs,  milk,  bread,  and  cereals, 
with  fruits  and  vegetables,  should  make  up  the  bulk  of 
a  child's  diet.  Sugar  should  be  added  to  the  diet  with 
some  care.  It  is  better  given  at  the  end  of  the  meal  in  a 
simple  dessert,  such  as  rice  pudding,  custard,  figs,  raisins, 
or  occasionally  a  wholesome  homemade  candy.  Sugar  is 
used  to  excess  usually  with  the  cereal,  fruit,  and  beverages, 
and  these  food  habits  should  never  be  formed.  Tea  and 
coffee  should  never  be  given  to  a  child,  but  the  habit  of 
drinking  water  should  be  encouraged.  With  thought  and 
tact  on  the  part  of  older  people,  the  child  will  develop  a 
liking  for  most  ordinary,  plain  foods.  All  fancy  and  rich 
made  dishes,  especially  those  which  are  highly  flavored, 
should  be  rigidly  excluded  from  the  meals  of  a  child. 

The  importance  of  proper  food  for  the  child  in  school  is 
recognized  more  and  more,  as  is  shown  by  the  action  of 
school  authorities  and  other  interested  parties  in  providing 
food  at  school.  Frequently,  as  a  result,  better  health  follows, 
better  order  is  found  in  the  schoolroom,  and  lessons  are 
better  learned.  Food,  especially  when  eaten  in  the  middle 
of  the  study  period  of  the  day,  should  be  light  and  easy  of 
digestion.  Eggs  and  milk  will  be  a  safe  foundation  and 


FOOD  REQUIREMENTS  127 

should  be  used  more  generously  than  meat.  The  pennies 
of  school  children  are  most  commonly  spent  for  candy  and 
pickles.  It  is  better  to  include  in  the  meal  some  wholesome 
sweet  and  acid  so  that  the  craving  for  these  things  is  satis- 
fied. Figs,  dates,  and  raisins  are  desirable  sweets  for  a 
child's  lunch.  Ice  cream,  if  wholesome,  is  a  valuable  food, 
but  that  obtained  from  street  venders  is  so  frequently  bad 
that  it  is  dangerous  to  buy  it.  If  the  lunch  is  served  at 
school,  milk,  soups,  and  cocoa  or  plain  milk  with  crackers 
are  good.  Fresh  and  stewed  fruits  and  vegetables  should 
be  liberally  used.  Good  bread  and  butter  is  always  desirable. 
Cookies,  gingerbread,  sponge  cakes,  and  other  mixtures 
which  are  not  rich  may  well  be  included  in  the  meals  of 
children  to  supply  variety  and  attractiveness. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

Using  the  table  for  one-hundred-calorie  portions,  plan  the  three 
meals  of  a  day  which  will  have  a  total  fuel  value  of  2500  calories. 

Estimate  the  calorific  value  of  an  ordinary  breakfast. 

Using  the  tables  given  in  this  chapter,  plan  a  day's  meals  for  a 
man  who  is  digging  a  ditch  or  sawing  wood ;  a  day's  meals  for 
a  bookkeeper.  The  weight  of  both  men  is  assumed  to  be  175  pounds. 

Plan  one  week's  suitable  noon  lunches  for  a  child  in  school. 

Test  for  starch  several  samples  of  prepared  infant's  food.  How 
is  this  done  ? 

References 

SHERMAN.    Chemistry  of  Food  and  Nutrition. 
JORDAN.    Principles  of  Human  Nutrition. 
ROSE.    Laboratory  Manual  of  Dietetics. 
HUTCHISON.    Food  and  Dietetics. 
LUSK.    Science  of  Nutrition. 
MENDEL.   Childhood  and  Growth. 

HUNT.   "Daily  Meals  for  School  Children,"  Bulletin  No. 3,  Bureau  of 
Education. 


128  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

"  School  Lunches,"  The  Journal  of  Home  Economics,  February,  1910, 
April,  1910,  December,  1910. 

Psychological  Clinic,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Symposium  on  School 
Feeding. 

"  Classified  List  of  Foods,"  Yearbook,  1909,  Department  of  House- 
hold Science,  Illinois  Farmers'  Institute. 

ATWATER  and  BRYANT.  "  Chemical  Composition  of  American  Food 
Materials,"  Bulletin  No.  28,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

SELECTION  OF   FOOD 

A  few  generations  ago,  when  people  produced  much  of 
their  own  food  and  transportation  facilities  were  not  so 
well  developed,  the  variety  of  food  at  hand  was  not  so 
great  as  now,  and  the  possibilities  of  choice  were  not 
so  many  or  so  confusing.  The  choice  of  food  for  human 
beings  is  a  real  responsibility  and  should  be  more  clearly 
recognized.  Unfortunately,  appetite  is  not  always  a  safe 
guide,  for  food  habits  are  rather  easily  formed,  and  an 
abnormal  appetite  is  as  easily  and  quickly  formed  as  a 
normal,  or  correct,  one.  Appetite,  or  food  habit,  may  lead 
to  the  eating  of  too  much  as  well  as  to  the  eating  of  too 
little  food.  Both  overnutrition  and  undernutrition  may 
be  commonly  observed  in  people,  due  not  only  to  too 
much  or  too  little  food  eaten,  but  to  food  that  is  not 
wisely  chosen.  The  only  remedy  for  bad  food  habits  is 
some  real  knowledge  of  the  value  of  foods,  as  well  as  a 
knowledge  of  the  individuals  who  are  to  eat  them.  At  the 
present  time  any  progressive  stockman  or  farmer  can  tell 
what  kind  and  amount  of  food  is  being  given  to  the  calf 
or  the  pig,  but  not  many  women  in  the  same  families  have 
an  equal  knowledge  of  the  food  which  is  being  given  to 
the  children,  or  to  the  grown-up  members  of  the  family. 
Mrs.  Richards  says,  "Not all  other  influences  put  together 

can  equal  in  profound  effect  upon  the  welfare  of   the 

129 


130  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

household  that  exercised  by  food  and  the  attitude  of  mind 
'regarding  it."  Sugar  is  more  nearly  chemically  pure  than 
any  of  our  ordinary  food  products ;  starch  is  practically 
pure  carbohydrate,  but  most  all  of  our  common  food  mate- 
rials contain  two  or  more  nutrients  or  food  principles,  and 
a  knowledge  of  the  composition  is  necessary  to  a  wise 
choice  of  foods. 

It  is  not  only  desirable  that  a  person  cultivate  a  liking, 
or  taste,  for  all  ordinary  foods,  but  it  is  really  a  duty.  In 
many  cases  so-called  dislikes  are  only  mistaken  notions, 
and  indicate  bad  food  habits  or  poorly  prepared  food. 
Criticism  of  food  at  the  table  is  not  desirable  and  should 
never  occur,  as  this  is  a  strong  influence  in  forming  fancied 
dislikes  and  cultivating  bad  food  habits. 

In  the  ordinary  family  there  are  both  children  and 
adults,  and  the  differences  in  their  need  of  food  should 
be  borne  in  mind.  Certain  peculiarities  or  abnormal  con- 
ditions may  need  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  the 
individual.  There  should  be  a  wide  difference  between 
the  food  of  an  infant  and  an  adult,  and  errors  in  the  nu- 
trition of  the  infant  and  the  growing  child  may  affect  the 
health  in  later  years. 

To  properly  select  food,  its  chemical  composition  must 
be  understood  and  interpreted  in  the  terms  of  nutrients, 
or  food  principles  -  -  water,  mineral  matter,  protein,  carbo- 
hydrate, and  fat.  '  Chemical  Composition  of  American 
Food  Materials,"  Bulletin  No.  28,  gives  the  composition  of 
all  our  ordinary  foods.  The  figures  cannot  be  remembered, 
but  it  is  not  too  much  to  ask  that  the  one  who  selects  food 
should  have  in  mind  the  general  composition  of  the  food 
materials. 


SELECTION  OF  FOOD 


The  table  below  suggests  the  nutrients  for  which  some 
common  foods  are  especially  valued. 


PROTEIX 

FAT 

CARBOHYDRATE 

MINERAL  CONTENT 

Meat 

Butter 

Sugar 

Green  vegetables 

Eggs 

Cream 

Starch 

Fruits 

Milk 

Bacon 

Bread 

Eggs 

Cheese 

Cheese 

Cereals 

Milk 

Legumes 

Nuts 

Dried  fruits 

Nuts 

Fat  meat 

Rice 

Fish 

Potatoes 

Macaroni 

Hominy 

Tapioca 

Dried  beans 

It  is  not  often  that  we  select  foods  because  of  a  high 
water  content,  for  water  is  so  easily  obtainable  elsewhere, 
but  the  following  foods  contain  a  large  amount  of  water : 
milk,  green  vegetables  (such  as  celery,  lettuce,  cabbage, 
cucumbers,  and  tomatoes),  fresh  fruits,  and  shell  fish  (such 
as  oysters  and  clams). 

Oatmeal,  graham  flour,  green  vegetables,  and  fruits 
furnish  bulk  to  the  diet. 

Cost  is  a  very  real  factor  in  selecting  food,  but  it  is  not 
always  properly  considered.  A  cheap  food  is  one  which 
contains  a  large  amount  of  nutritive  material  for  a  given 
sum  of  money-  -not  necessarily  one  of  low  money  cost. 
Cost  is  in  no  way  a  measure  of  the  value  of  a  food.  Rarity, 
flavor,  distance  from  market,  season,  and  other  factors 
enter  into  the  money  cost.  Generally  speaking,  meats, 
dairy  products,  and  vegetables  and  fruits  out  of  season  are 
high-priced  foods.  Plant  foods,  as  a  whole,  are  cheaper 


132  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

than  animal  foods  ;  the  cheapest  foods  are  the  cereals  and 
legumes.  The  cost  of  fuel  for  cooking  any  food  must  be 
added  to  the  cost  of  the  raw  material.  Sometimes  a  sav- 
ing in  the  cost  of  food  may  be  made  by  buying  in  large 
quantity  and  storing. 

PLANNING  MEALS 

Since  so  many  factors  enter  into  the  wise  selection  of 
food,  the  planning  of  meals  should  be  a  subject  for  study. 
The  housekeeper  who  carefully  plans  the  meals  for  several 
days,  or  at  least  one  day,  in  advance  is  able  to  select  more 
wisely,  buy  more  advantageously,  secure  more  pleasing 
meals,  and  do  it  with  less  friction  than  the  one  who  does 
not.  Such  a  woman  is  in  sharp  contrast  to  the  one  who 
goes  into  the  kitchen  shortly  before  a  meal,  finds  a  lack 
of  the  things  wanted,  and  starts  the  children  in  hurried 
trips  to  the  store  for  the  first  article  of  food  which  comes 
to  her  mind  as  one  that  can  be  quickly  prepared.  The 
dropping  of  this  careless  habit  would  be  much  appreciated 
by  the  grocer,  as  well  as  by  the  members  of  the  household. 

In  planning  meals  the  tastes  of  the  family  should  be 
taken  into  account  to  a  certain  extent.  Real  likes  and  dis- 
likes should  be  carefully  distinguished  from  whimsical 
notions.  In  every  case  the  food  should  be  so  prepared 
and  served  that  it  is  pleasing  both  in  flavor  and  appear- 
ance. Monotony  in  meals  is  not  necessary  and  indicates 
lack  of  thought  and  care.  Variety  in  food  has  both  a 
psychological  and  a  physiological  value.  This  may  be  ob- 
tained by  using  different  foods  or  by  using  different 
methods  for  preparing  and  serving  the  same  food.  Meat 
and  potatoes,  for  instance,  need  not  always  be  fried. 


SELECTION  OF  FOOD  133 

A  knowledge  of  the  composition  of  food  will  prevent  the 
serving  of  too  many  starchy  foods  at  one  meal,  such  as  rice 
and  potatoes,  or  macaroni  and  bread  pudding  ;  or  too  many 
foods  high  in  protein,  as  meat  and  cheese  or  legumes. 

Foods  should  be  combined  for  a  meal  not  only  on  the 
basis  of  composition,  but  with  regard  to  flavor.  Too  many 
acid,  sweet,  or  strong-flavored  foods  should  not  be  com- 
bined in  one  meal,  and  should  bear  a  proper  relation  to 
one  another. 

Experience  shows  that  dishes  of  somewhat  different  char- 
acter are  chosen  for  the  three  meals  of  the  day.  Americans 
are  tending  toward  the  simple  European  breakfast  of  rolls 
or  toast  and  coffee,  although  fruit,  cereals,  and  sometimes 
a  hot  dish  of  some  sort  is  added.  The  heavy  meal  of  the 
day  is  dinner,  whether  served  at  noon  or  at  night.  In 
addition  to  the  meat  course,  a  salad  course  and  a  dessert 
course  are  often  served.  Frequently  a  soup  course  precedes 
the  meat  course.  The  soup  and  salad  courses  are  some- 
times omitted.  The  luncheon  or  supper  is  a  lighter  meal. 

In  planning  meals  the  amount  of  labor  involved  in 
preparing  the  food  should  be  taken  into  account. 

After  food  is  wisely  chosen,  well  prepared,  and  properly 
combined  for  a  meal,  some  thought  should  be  spent  on 
its  serving,  for  this  may  either  add  to  or  detract  from 
the  meal. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

Make  a  list  of  dishes  suitable  for  the  three  meals  of  the  day. 

Suggest  the  more  expensive  dishes  which  appear  in  this  list. 

Suggest  the  dishes  on  this  list  which  require  a  long  time  in 
preparation. 

Plan  meals  for  a  day  which  will  be  low  in  cost;  medium  in  cost; 
high  in  cost.  Discuss  and  criticize. 


134  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

References 

*  * 

LANGWORTHY.  "  Food  Customs  and  Diet  in  American  Homes,"  Cir- 
cular No.  no,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.S.  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

RICHARDS.   Cost  of  Food. 

RICHARDS.    Cost  of  Living. 

NORTON.    Food  and  Dietetics. 

"  Rules  and  Regulations  for  the  Enforcement  of  the  Food  and  Drugs 
Act,"  Circular  No.  21,  Last  Revision,  Office  of  the  Secretary,  U.S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

"  Classified  List  of  Foods,"  Yearbook,  1909,  Department  of  Household 
Science,  Illinois  Farmers'  Institute. 

ATWATER  and  BRYANT.  "  Chemical  Composition  of  American  Food 
Materials,"  Bulletin  No.  28,  U.S.  Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

SERVING  MEALS 

The  dining  room  should  be  cleaned,  aired,  and  in  order. 
The  linen  should  be  as  good  as  possible  and  carefully  laun- 
dered, and  the  silver  should  be  kept  in  good  condition. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  SETTING  THE  TABLE 

If  tablecloth  is  to  be  used,  cover  table  first  with  silence 
cloth  for  protection,  then  put  on  tablecloth  with  middle 
fold  in  center  of  table.  On  tables  of  handsome  wood, 
luncheon  is  often  served  without  a  cloth,  individual  doilies 
being  used  under  all  the  dishes. 

A  '  cover '  is  a  place  at  table  for  each  person  and 
should  consist  of  plate,  napkin,  glass,  knives,  forks,  and 
spoons  necessary  for  the  meal.  Twenty  inches  of  space  is 
the  least  that  should  be  allowed  for  each  cover ;  and  on 
formal  occasions  30  inches  should  be  given.  The  depth 
of  cover  is  from  15  to  16  inches. 

Knives  are  placed  at  the  right  of  the  plate  and  about 
|  inch  from  the  edge  of  the  table  with  the  cutting  edge 
turned  toward  the  plate.  If  more  than  one  knife  is  used, 
lay  the  last  one  to  be  used  nearest  the  r3late,  the  first  knife 
to  be  used  farthest  from  the  plate,  and  the  others  in  order 
of  using.  At  the  right  of  the  knife  or  knives  lay  spoons 
with  bowls  up,  in  order  of  using.  On  formal  occasions 


136  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

when  a  number  are  required  they  may  be  laid  by  the  plate 
at  the  time  of  serving  the  course  for  which  they  are  needed. 

Forks  are  placed,  tines  up,  at  the  left  of  plate  in  the 
order  of  using,  except  the  oyster  fork,  which  is  placed  at 
right  of  spoons. 

The  napkin  is  folded  and  laid  at  the  left  of  the  forks, 
or  in  the  center  of  the  place. 

The  glass  should  be  three  quarters  filled  with  water  and 
placed  at  the  right  of  cover,  just  above  the  point  of  the 
knife. 

The  bread-and-butter  plate  is  at  the  left  above  the  forks. 

Individual  salts  and  peppers  are  placed  in  front  of  each 
cover,  or  salt  and  pepper  shakers  may  be  placed  between 
each  two  covers  or  at  corners  of  the  table. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  SERVING 

Trays  are  used  to  carry  silver,  small  dishes,  and  those 
dishes  on  which  fingers  are  apt  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  food.  Large  dishes  are  sometimes  more  easily  carried 
on  a  folded  napkin. 

Be  sure  that  hot  dishes  are  served  hot  and  cold  dishes 
cold. 

Dishes  from  which  portions  are  to  be  taken  should  be 
passed  to  the  left. 

Dishes  containing  only  individual  portions  are  placed  at 
the  right  with  the  right  hand. 

When  a  course  is  removed,  take  first  all  large  dishes 
containing  food,  then  all  soiled  china,  glass,  and  silver,  then 
clean  glass,  silver,  and  china,  and  all  things  pertaining  only 
to  that  course.  Never  pile  dishes  on  one  another.  One 
may  be  removed  in  each  hand  or  small  pieces  may  be  set 


SERVING  MEALS 


137 


beside  one  another  on  a  tray.  Take  the  plates  and  other 
dishes  from  the  right  side  of  the  cover. 

Crumbs  are  removed  before  the  dessert  course  and 
between  other  courses  if  necessary.  A  clean  napkin  and 
plate  are  satisfactory  for  this  purpose. 

The  waitress  should  see  that  glasses  are  kept  filled, 
butter,  bread,  and  rolls  always  supplied  without  being  asked 
for,  and  other  things  at  hand  as  needed. 

Remove  every  soiled  dish  from  the  table  as  soon  as  the 
purpose  which  it  has  served  is  over.  Move  noiselessly  and 
avoid  all  clatter  of  dishes. 

In  serving  begin  with  hostess  or  guest  of  honor  (the 
lady  at  the  right  of  the  host)  and  pass  to  the  other  guests 
in  order. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES 

r .  From  a  given  list  of  materials,  such  as  the  following,  plan  and 
prepare  a  meal  for  one  person.  Select  either  Group  I  or  Group  II 
and  use  any  desired  materials  from  the  Common  Supplies. 


GROUP  I 

.GROUP  II 

COMMON 

SUPPLIES 

i  potato 

Rice  or  macaroni 

Ice 

Flour 

i  egg 

i  egg 

Butter 

£  c  tomato 

\  c  milk 

^  c  milk 

Bread 

Gelatin 

Salmon 

Cheese 

Vinegar 

Flavoring 

Orange  or 

Pineapple  or 

Lemon 

Lettuce 

Canned  fruit 

Canned  fruit 

Sugar 

Serve  appropriately.    Compare  the  meals  as  to  originality,  desira- 
bility, and  attractiveness  of  service. 

2.  Plan  the  three  meals  of  the  day  for  six  persons  at  a  cost  of 
$1.80,  or  30  cents  each. 

Make  and  hand  in  the  order  list. 


138 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


Prepare  and  serve  the  meals.  Score  according  to  meal  score  card 
in  the  Appendix. 

Tabulate,  in  form  similar  to  the  one  indicated  below,  the  amount 
and  cost  of  materials  used. 


FOODS 


AMOUNT 


COST 


Calculate  the  cost  of  fuel  used  in  preparation  of  the  above  meals, 
and  the  cost  of  labor  at  ten  cents  per  hour. 

What  is  the  total  cost  of  the  meals  of  the  day  ? 


APPENDIX  I 

FOOD  STANDARDS 

The  fact  that  poorly  prepared  food  is  often  found  sug- 
gests the  need  of  better  standards.  It  is  easy  and  natural 
to  like  the  things  to  which  we  are  accustomed,  and  often- 
times a  family  is  found  which  is  fond  of  its  own  particular 
kind  of  sour  bread,  or  its  hard-fried,  leathery  beefsteak. 
Comparison  is  one  of  the  best  means  of  setting  a  good 
standard,  and  the  score  card  affords  a  ready  means  of 
emphasizing  the  good  or  bad  points  of  an  article.  The 
following  score  cards  have  been  found  useful,  and  others 
could  be  easily  formulated. 

BREAD1   (WHITE,    SALT-RISING,    RYE,    GRAHAM) 

Flavor 35 

Lightness 15 

Grain  and  Texture 20 

Crust 

Color 


Depth     I 10 

Texture 

^ 

Crumb 

Color 

I 10 

Moisture  J 

Shape  and  Size 10 

100 

1  Illinois  score  card  for  bread.  —  Bevier. 

139 


140  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

STEAMED  BROWN  BREAD  AND  CORN  BREAD 

Flavor 40 

Lightness 15 

Texture 20 

Crust 10 

Appearance 15 

100 

LOAF  CAKES 

Flavor 35 

Lightness ,'  15 

Texture 20 

Crust 10 

Appearance 

Shape,  Size      "1 

Color  of  Crust  L 20 

Icing  J  

IOO 

LAYER  CAKES 

Flavor 30 

Lightness    ...........  15 

Texture 20 

Icing 20 

Appearance .  15 

IOO 

COOKIES,  DOUGHNUTS,  AND  FANCY  CAKES 

Flavor 40 

Lightness 15 

Texture 20 

Appearance 

Form         "j 

Size,  etc.   5- 25 

Additions  J 

IOO 


FOOD  STANDARDS  141 

PIES 

Flavor 40 

Crust 

Flakiness     "i 

_  >• 40 

Tenderness  j 

Appearance 20 

100 
CANDY 

Flavor 50 

Texture 30 

Appearance 20 

100 
CANNED  FRUIT 

Flavor 60 

Color 15 

Condition  of  Fruit 15 

Consistency  of  Sirup 10 

100 

JELLY 

Flavor 50 

Color 15 

Consistency 20 

Texture 15 

100 
PRESERVES^ 

Flavor |o 

Color 15 

Consistency  of  Sirup 20 

Condition  of  Fruit 15 

100 
PICKLES,  CATSUP,  ETC. 

Flavor 60 

Condition 25 

Color      . 15 

100 


142  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

FRUIT  BUTTER  AND  MARMALADE 

Flavor 60 

Consistency 25 

Color  . .       15 

100 
SCORE  CARD  FOR  A  MEAL 

Selection  of  food 

Quality  of  materials 

Combination  of  nutrients 

Combination  of  flavors 

Variety  and  suitability 

Preparation  of  food 35 

Service 

Table  appointments 

Attractiveness  of  food 

Table  service 

s 

100 

CONTESTS 

The  contest  may  be  a  valuable  means  of  making  com- 
parisons and  forming  standards.  A  bread-judging  contest 
is  frequently  arranged  for  a  class  or  a  club,  in  which  a 
number  of  loaves  of  bread  are  judged,  according  to  the 
score  card,  by  the  contestants.  Other  contests  could  easily 
be  arranged  in  the  same  way. 


APPENDIX  II 

RETAIL  CUTS  OF  BEEF 

[Reprint  from  Bulletin  No.  fj8,  University  of  Illinois,  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  by  L.  D.  Hall  and  A.  D.  Emmett,  to  be  used  in  connection  with  their 

photographs  of  retail  cuts] 

Taking  the  net  cost  of  the  lean  meat  as  a  basis  of  comparison, 
we  learn  from  these  data  that  the  most  expensive  steaks  at  the 
prices  given  are  the  porterhouse  cuts,  followed  by  the  club,  sir- 
loin, flank,  round,  and  chuck  steaks.  Of  the  different  roasts  the 
first-cut  prime  ribs  are  the  most  costly  in  terms  of  lean  meat, 
and  the  rump  roast  is  the  most  economical.  The  various  boil- 
ing and  stewing  pieces  furnish  lean  meat  more  economically  at 
market  prices  than  either  the  roasts  or  steaks ;  the  rib  ends  and 
briskets  being  the  dearer  cuts  of  this  class,  while  the  neck  and 
shank  stews  are  relatively  cheapest.  Several  of  the  soup  bones 
are  very  economical  sources  of  lean  meat,  particularly  the  mid- 
dle cuts  of  both  shanks ;  and  only  one  of  them  is  extremely 
expensive,  even  on  this  basis.  In  general,  the  wide  variation 
between  the  various  cuts  in  net  cost  of  lean  is  remarkable, 
ranging  from  7.5  cents  in  one  of  the  soup  bones  to  40.5  cents 
in  a  prime  rib  roast,  and  up  to  62.5  cents  in  the  hock  soup 
bone ;  the  latter,  however,  being  used  primarily  for  its  flavoring 
substance  rather  than  for  lean  meat.  It  will  be  observed,  also, 
that  the  market  prices  of  the  cheaper  cuts  correspond  much 
more  closely  to  their  net  cost  of  lean  meat  than  is  true  of  the 
higher-priced  steaks  and  roasts. 

The  net  cost  per  pound  of  gross  meat,  or  lean  and  fat  com- 
bined, varies  much  less  as  between  the  different  cuts  than  does 
the  net  cost  per  pound  of  lean,  because  the  proportions  of  total 
meat  are  more  nearly  uniform  than  the  percentages  of  lean. 


144  A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 

The  various  steaks  and  roasts  rank  in  substantially  the  same 
order  as  to  relative  economy  on  this  basis  as  on  the  basis  of 
lean  meat.  The  rib  roasts,  however,  are  considerably  more 
economical  as  compared  with  the  porterhouse  and  sirloin  steaks 
when  all  the  edible  meat  is  considered.  The  rump  shows  a 
very  low  cost  per  pound  of  edible  meat,  due  to  the  large  pro- 
portion of  fat  it  contains  ;  and  a  still  further  difference  is  noticed 
in  the  case  of  the  rib  ends,  brisket,  navel,  flank,  neck,  and  sev- 
eral  of  the  soup-bone  cuts.  The  stewing  meats  are  generally  the 
most  economical  sources  of  edible  meat  at  these  prices,  while 
porterhouse  steaks  are  the  most  expensive. 

On  the  whole,  the  data  clearly  show  that  the  cheaper  cuts 
of  beef  are  by  far  the  most  economical  sources  both  of  lean 
and  of  total  edible  meat,  including  fat  and  lean.  It  has  been 
shown  that  no  correlation  exists  between  market  prices  and  the 
proportion  of  flavoring  substances  contained  in  various  portions 
of  the  carcass ;  and  cooking  tests  indicate  that  the  proportion 
of  waste  and  shrinkage  is  not  necessarily  greater  in  the  cheaper 
than  in  the  more  expensive  cuts.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
retail  prices  of  beef  cuts  are  determined  chiefly  by  considera- 
tions other  than  their  food  value,  such  as  tenderness,  grain, 
color,  general  appearance,  and  convenience  of  cooking. 


APPENDIX  II 


145 


COST  OF  LEAN  AND  OF  TOTAL  MEAT  IN  THE  VARIOUS  RETAIL 

CUTS  AT  MARKET  PRICES 


RETAIL  CUTS 

DIAGRAM 
NUMBER 
(PAGE  147) 

RETAIL 
PRICE  (IN 
CENTS) 
PER  POUND 
OF  CUT 

COST  (IN 
CENTS)  PER 
POUND  OF 
LEAN  MEAT 
IN  CUT 

COST  (IN 
CENTS)  PER 
POUND  OF 
LEAN  AND 
FAT  MEAT 
IN  CUT 

Steaks 

Porterhouse,  hip-bone 

8 

25 

38.6 

28.9 

Porterhouse,  regular 

10 

25 

40.2 

27.2 

Club  steak 

18 

2O 

32.1 

22.6 

Sirloin,  butt-end 

i 

2O 

25-3 

20.6 

Sirloin,  round-bone 

3 

2O 

28.3 

21.  1 

Sirloin,  double-bone 

5 

20 

28.7 

22.7 

Sirloin,  hip-bone 

7 

2O 

32.3 

24.2 

Flank  steak 

i 

16 

19-3 

16.0 

Round,  first  cut 

2 

15^ 

17.0 

15-3- 

Round,  middle  cut 

6 

15 

17-3 

15.6 

Round,  last  cut 

M 

15 

19-3 

1  6.0 

Chuck,  first  cut 

2 

12 

I8.3 

14.1 

Chuck,  last  cut 

9 

12 

'57 

I3-I 

Roasts 

Prime  ribs,  first  cut 

i 

2O 

40.5 

22.9 

Prime  ribs,  last  cut 

4 

16 

26.1 

18.8 

Chuck,  fifth  rib 

i 

15 

22.8 

17-3 

Rump 

i 

12 

194 

12.8 

Boiling  and  stewing  pieces 

Round  pot  roast 

16 

10 

11.6 

IO.I 

Shoulder  clod 

'4 

10 

12.3 

10.5 

Shoulder  pot  roast 

ii 

10 

14-3 

u.6 

Rib  ends 

3 

8 

16.2 

9.2 

Brisket 

i 

8 

15.0 

8.7 

Navel 

2 

7 

12.8 

7-7 

Flank  stew 

^ 

7 

10.9 

7-i 

Fore  shank  stew 

I 

7 

8.5 

7.0 

Neck 

15 

6 

8.5 

7.0 

Soup  bones 

Round,  knuckle 

2 

5 

26.3 

12.5 

Hind  shank,  middle  cut 

18 

5 

7-5 

6-3 

Hind  shank,  hock 

19 

5 

62.5 

26.6 

Fore  shank,  knuckle 

2 

5 

17.2 

12.5 

Fore  shank,  middle  cut 

4 

5 

12.5 

9.4 

Fore  shank,  end 

6 

5 

28.8 

20.9 

146 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


Chuck 
(knuckle  out) 


HIND  QUARTER 
Round 

Rump 

Round  with  rump  and  shank  off 

Hind  shank 

Loin 
Flank 

FORE  QUARTER 
Rib 

Chuck 

Chuck,  knuckle  out 

Clod 

Neck 

Plate 
Shank 


METHOD  OF  CUTTING  THE  THREE  SIDES,  SHOWING  WHOLESALE  CUTS 


RETAIL  CUTS 


147 


Round 


HIND  QUARTER 


Rump 

1,  rump 

Round  with  rump  and  shank  off 

2,  round  steak,  first  cut 
3-13,  round  steaks 

14,  round  steak,  last  cut 

15,  knuckle  soup  bone 

16,  pot  roast 

Hind  shank 


17,  1 8,  soup  bones 
19,  hock  soup  bone 


Loin 


1,  butt-end  sirloin  steak 

2,  wedge-bone  sirloin  steak 

3,  4,  round-bone  sirloin  steak 
5,  6,  double-bone  sirloin  steak 

7,  hip-bone  sirloin  steak 

8,  hip-bone  porterhouse  steak 
9-15,  regular  porterhouse  steak 
1 6- 18,  club  steaks 


Flank 


i,  flank  steak 


2,  stew 


Rib 


FORE  QUARTER 

1,  nth  and  i2th  rib  roast 

2,  gth  and  loth  rib  roast 

3,  /th  and  8th  rib  roast 

4,  6th  rib  roast 


Chuck 


i,  5th  rib  roast 
2-9,  chuck  steaks 
10-13,  pot  roasts 

14,  clod 

15,  neck 


Plate 


1,  brisket 

2,  navel 

3,  4,  rib  ends 


Fore  shank 


i,  stew 


2,  knuckle  soup  bone 
3-6,  soup  bones 


Neck 


METHOD  OF  CUTTING  THE  THREE  SIDES,  SHOWING  RETAIL  CUTS 


148 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


FIRST  CUT  SIRLOIN  STEAK.   LOIN  CUT  No.  i 


WEDGE-BONE  SIRLOIN  STEAK.   LOIN  CUT  No.  2 


ROUND-BONE  SIRLOIN  STEAK.   LOIN  CUT  No.  3 


RETAIL  CUTS 


149 


ROUND-BONE  SIRLOIN  STEAK.   LOIN  CUT  No.  4 


DOUBLE-BONE  SIRLOIN  STEAK.   LOIN  CUT  No.  5 


HIP-BONE  SIRLOIN  STEAK.   LOIN  CUT  No.  7 


ISO 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


HIP-BONE  PORTERHOUSE  STEAK.   LOIN  CUT  No.  8 


REGULAR  PORTERHOUSE  STEAK.   LOIN  CUT  No.  9 


REGULAR  PORTERHOUSE  STEAK.   LOIN  CUT  No.  10 


RETAIL  CUTS 


REGULAR  PORTERHOUSE  STEAK.   LOIN  CUT  No.  12 


REGULAR  PORTERHOUSE  STEAK.   LOIN  CUT  No.  13 


REGULAR  PORTERHOUSE  STEAK.   LOIN  CUT  No.  14 


152 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


REGULAR  PORTERHOUSE  STEAK.   LOIN  CUT  No.  15 


CLUB  STEAK.   LOIN  CUT  No.  16 


CLUB  STEAK.   LOIN  CUT  No.  17 


RETAIL  CUTS 


153 


CLUB  STEAK.   LOIN  CUT  No.  18 


ELEVENTH  AND  TWELFTH  RIB  ROAST.   RIB  CUT  No.  i 


NINTH  AND  TENTH  RIB  ROAST.   RIB  CUT  No.  2 


154 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


SEVENTH  AND  EIGHTH  RIB  ROAST.   RIB  CUT  No.  3 


SIXTH  RIB  ROAST.   RIB  CUT  No.  4 


RETAIL  CUTS 


155 


RUMP  ROAST.   ROUND  CUT  No.  i 


ROUND  STEAK.   ROUND  CUT  No.  2 


I56 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


ROUND  STEAK.    ROUND  CUT  No.  3 


ROUND  STEAK.   ROUND  CUT  No.  4 


RETAIL  CUTS 


157 


ROUND  STEAK.  ROUND  CUT  No.  5 


ROUND  STEAK.  ROUND  CUT  No.  6 


158 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


ROUND  STEAK.   ROUND  CUT  No.  7 


ROUND  STEAK.   ROUND  CUT  No.  8 


RETAIL  CUTS 


159 


ROUND  STEAK.  ROUND  CUT  No.  12 


-- 


ROUND  STEAK.   ROUND  CUT  No.  14 


HIND-SHANK  SOUP  BONE.    ROUND  CUTS  Nos.  17,  18,  19 


i6o 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


ROUND  POT  ROAST.   ROUND  CUT  No.  16 


KNUCKLE  SOUP  BONE.   ROUND  CUT  No.  15 


RETAIL  CUTS 


161 


CHUCK  RIB  ROAST.   CHUCK  CUT  No.  i 


CHUCK  STEAK.    CHUCK  CUT  No.  2 


CHUCK  STEAK.   CHUCK  CUT  No.  3 


162 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


CHUCK  STEAK.   CHUCK  CUT  No.  4 


CHUCK  STEAK.   CHUCK  CUT  No.  5 


CHUCK  STEAK.   CHUCK  CUT  No.  6 


RETAIL  CUTS 


CHUCK  STEAK.   CHUCK  CUT  No.  7 


CHUCK  STEAK.   CHUCK  CUT  No.  8 


164 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


CHUCK  STEAK.   CHUCK  CUT  No.  9 


SHOULDER  POT  ROAST.   CHUCK  CUT  No.  10 


RETAIL  CUTS 


I65 


^- 


• 


Sim i  I.I.KR  POT  ROAST.   CHUCK  CUT  No.  n 


SHOULDER  POT  ROAST.  CHUCK  CUT  No.  12 


1 66 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


CHUCK  STEW.   CHUCK  CUT  No.  13. 


SHOULDER  CLOD.    CHUCK  CUT  No.  14 


NECK.   CHUCK  CUT  No.  15 


RETAIL  CUTS 


167 


BRISKET.    PLATE  CUT  No.  i 


NAVEL.   PLATE  CUT  No.  2 


I 


RIB  ENDS.   PLATE  CUT  No.  3 


1 68 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


RIB  ENDS.   PLATE  CUT  No.  4 


FLANK  STEW.    FLANK  CUT  No.  i 


FLANK  STEAK.   FLANK  CUT  No.  2 


RETAIL  CUTS 


169 


SHANK  STEW.   FORE-SHANK  CUT  No.  i 


KNUCKLE  SOUP  BONES.   FORE-SHANK  CUTS  Nos.  2,  3 


FORE-SHANK  SOUP  BONES.   FORE-SHANK  CUTS  Nos.  4,  5,  6 


INDEX 


Albumen,  61,  62 

Almonds,  124 

Apples,  dried,  15;  baked,  17;  fuel 

value  of,  124 
Apricots,  dried,  15 
Ash  in  milk,  54 
Asparagus,  17 

Bacon, 124 

Baking  powder,  103-104 

Baking  soda,  102 

Hananas,  124 

Beans,  as  a  green  vegetable,  17; 
dried,  51,  124  ;  baked,  52  ;  cream 
of  Lima,  53 

Beef.    See  Meat 

Beef  broth,  74-75 

Beets,  17 

Biscuit,  105 

Body  energy,  120-127 

Bread,  corn,  103  ;  composition  of, 
108-111;  score  card  for,  m- 
112;  effect  of  temperatures  upon 
yeast,  112;  long-process,  113; 
short-process,  113-114;  whole- 
wheat, graham,  or  rye,  114; 
Parker  House  rolls,  114;  cin- 
namon rolls,  114;  fuel  value  of, 
1 24 ;  Illinois  score  card  for,  1 39- 
140 

Butter,  124 

Butterscotch,  35 

Cabbage,  17,  124;  escaloped,  19 
Cake,  sponge,  101  ;  white  sponge, 

1 02  ;  white,  104  ;  score  card  for, 

140 

Canning  powders,  23 
Carbohydrates,  value  of,  2  ;  study 

of,  3-4  ;  starch,  37  ;  in  milk,  54  ; 

pectin,   87 ;    in   some    common 


foods,  116;  fuel  value  of,  120- 
121 

Carrots,  17 

Cauliflower,  17 

Cereals  and  cereal  products,  43- 
48  ;  composition  and  food  value 
of,  43-45 ;  boiled  rice,  45 ;  es- 
caloped rice,  46 ;  rice  pudding, 
46 ;  boiled  macaroni,  46  ;  maca- 
roni with  tomato  sauce,  46-47  ; 
advantage  of  long  cooking,  47 ; 
corn-meal  mush,  47  ;  fried  mush, 
47  ;  rolled  oats,  47-48 

Cheese,  65-67;  composition  and 
food  value  of,  65  ;  effect  of  heat 
on,  66;  Welsh  rabbit,  66;  French 
rabbit,  66  ;  fuel  value  of,  1 24 

Cheese  crackers,  66 

Cheese  and  pimento  sandwiches, 
66-67 

Chocolate,  58,  124 

Chocolate  creams,  35 

Codfish  balls,  84-85 

Coffee,  13 

Corn,  water  in  cooking,  17; 
canned,  25-26 

Corn  meal,  as  a  food,  44;  for  bread, 
97,  103;  fuel  value  of,  124 

Corn-meal  mush,  47 

Cornstarch  pudding,  38 

Cottage  cheese,  58 

Cream,  124 

Croquettes,  beef,  79 ;  fish,  85 ; 
potato,  92 

Custard,  baked,  63  ;  soft,  63-64 

Dates,  dried,  15,  124 
Dextrin,  37 
Doughnuts,  105-106 
Doughs,  99-100,  105-106 
Drawn-butter  sauce,  84 


171 


1/2 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


Dried  legumes,  51-53;  baked 
beans,  52  ;  dried-pea  soup,  52 ; 
lentil  soup,  52 ;  cream  of  lima 
beans,  53  ;  peanut  sandwiches, 
53 ;  salted  peanuts,  53 

Eggs,  61-64;  composition  and  food 
value  of, 61-62;  manipulation  of, 
62;  effect  of  heaton,62;  poached, 
62-63 ;  omelet,  63 ;  baked  cus- 
tard, 63 ;  soft  custard,  63 ;  fuel 
value  of,  1 24.  See  also  Cake 

Fat,  food  value  of,  2-3  ;  study  of, 
4;  in  peanuts,  51;  in  milk,  54; 
in  eggs,  61  ;  in  cheese,  65 ;  in 
meat,  68;  in  fish,  81  ;  in  some 
common  foods,  118;  fuel  value 
of,  1 20,  121 

Fats  and  oils,  90-93  ;  composition 
and  food  value  of,  90-91  ;  effect 
of  heat  on,  91  ;  types  of  com- 
mercial, 91  ;  ice  cream,  91—92 ; 
Saratoga  chips,  92  ;  potato  cro- 
quettes, 92 

Figs,  dried,  15 

Fish,  81-86;  composition  and  food 
value  of,  81;  boiled,  83  ;  baked, 
83  ;  stuffing  for,  83  ;  sauces  for, 
84 ;  escaloped  salmon,  84  ;  cod- 
fish balls,  84-85 ;  escaloped 
left-overs,  85;  creamed,  86 

Fish  croquettes,  85 

Flour,  94-98  ;  composition  of,  94 ; 
varieties  of  wheat,  94-95  ;  food 
value  of,  95-97  ;  graham  and 
whole-wheat,  96;  rye,  barley, 
buckwheat,  corn,  97 ;  batters 
and  dough,  99-107  ;  leavening 
mixture,  99-100;  oven  tests, 
101  ;  baking  temperatures,  101 ; 
popovers,  101  ;  sponge  cake, 
101-102;  gingerbread,  102;  sour- 
milk  griddlecakes,  102-103  ; 
corn  bread,  103  ;  baking-powder 
griddlecakes,  104;  muffins,  104; 
white  cake,  104  ;  boiled  icing, 
104-105;  biscuit,  105;  short- 
cake, 105;  doughnuts,  105-106; 
bread, 108-115 


Fondant,  34-35 

Food,  i-io;  defined,  i;  function 
of,  1-3 ;  chemical  composition 
of,  2-6 ;  carbohydrates,  3  ;  fats, 
4;  proteins,  4;  water,  5;  mineral 
matter,  5 ;  preparation  of,  6 ; 
temperatures,  8 ;  fuels,  9 ;  se- 
lection of,  129-134;  good  and 
bad  habits  in  choosing,  1 29-130 ; 
table  of  nutrients,  131 ;  planning 
meals,  132-133;  serving  meals, 

,  I3S-I38 
Food  requirements,  120-128;  for 

different  persons,  122;  one- 
hundred-calorie  portions,  123; 
for  the  infant,  123-125;  for 
young  children,  125-126;  for 
school  children,  126-127 

Food  standards,  139-142 

French  rabbit,  66 

Fruit  punch,  12-13 

Fruits,  composition  and  food  value 
of,  15;  fresh  and  dried,  16; 
baked  apples,  17;  stewed 
prunes,  19 ;  in  salads,  19,  20,  21  ; 
preserving,  22-30 ;  experiments 
in  preserving,  23-24 ;  canned 
peaches,  26 ;  grape  conserve, 
27  ;  grape  jelly,  27-28 

Fuels  for  cooking,  9 

Gelatin,  87-89  ;  jellied  prunes,  88  ; 

orange  whip,  88  ;  snow  pudding, 

88  ;  tomato  jelly,  89 
Gingerbread,  102 
Gluten,  94,  95,  97,  99 
Grape  conserve,  27 
Griddlecakes,  102-103,  104 

Hash,  meat,  79 

Heat,  in  preserving  foods,  23,  25  ; 

effect  of,  on  protein,  70,  75-76; 

effect  of,  on  fat,  90,  91 
Hominy,  44 

Ice  cream,  91—92 
Icing,  boiled,  104-105 

Jelly,  27  ;  grape,  27-28 
Junket,  58 


INDEX 


173 


Lactose,  33 

Legumes,  51-53 

Lemon  ice,  13 

Lemonade,  12 

Lentil  soup,  52 

Lima  beans,  cream  of,  53 

Macaroni,  composition  of,  44 ; 
boiled,  46 ;  with  tomato  sauce, 
46-47 

MaUre-d'hdtel  butter,  84 

Meals,  planning,  132-133;  serving, 
135-138  ;  setting  the  table,  135- 
136;  score  card  for,  142 

Meat,  68-80 ;  composition  and 
food  value  of,  68-69  '•>  cooking, 
70-71;  cuts  of  beef,  71-72; 
methods  of  cooking,  73-74 ; 
effect  of  dry  and  moist  heat 
on  protein  of,  75;  pan-broiled 
porterhouse  steak  or  chops,  76; 
beef  roast,  76;  pressed  veal, 
76;  Swiss  steak,  77;  brown 
stew,  77  ;  pot  roast,  77  ;  substi- 
tutes for,  78  ;  minced,  79  ;  escal- 
oped,  79 ;  browned  hash,  79 ; 
beef  croquettes,  79 ;  descrip- 
tion and  cost  of  various  cuts, 
143-169 

Meat  salad,  79 

Milk,  54-59 ;  composition  and 
food  value  of,  54-57  ;  pasteur- 
ization of,  57  ;  effect  of  boiling, 
57  ;  modifying,  57-58 ;  cottage 
cheese,  58 ;  junket,  58 ;  choco- 
late, 58 ;  potato  soup,  58-59 ; 
compared  with  other  foods,  1 16- 
119;  for  infants  and  children, 
123-127 

Mineral  matter,  in  composition  of 
food,  2-3 ;  study  of,  5-6 ;  in 
cooked  fruits,  15;  in  potatoes, 
40 ;  in  eggs,  61  ;  in  meat,  68 

Molasses  taffy,  35 

Muffins,  104 

Oatmeal,  124 

Oats,  44-45'  47~48 
Olives,  124 
Omelet,  63 


Onions,    water    in    cooking,    17; 

creamed,  19 
Orange  whip,  88 
Oranges,  124 
Oysters,  81-86;   composition  and 

food  value  of,  8 1 -83;  creamed,  85 

Pasteurization,  57 

Peaches,  dried,  15;  canned,  26 

Peanut  brittle,  34 

Peanuts,  in  sandwiches,  53  ;  salted, 

53 
Peas,  17  ;  dried,  in  soup,  52 

Pectin,  87 

Pickles,  28,  124 

Popovers,  101 

Pot  roast,  77 

Potato  croquettes,  92 

Potato  salad,  42 

Potato  soup,  58-59 

Potatoes,  40-42  ;  composition  and 
food  value  of,  40;  boiled,  41; 
creamed,  41  ;  mashed,  41  ;  au 
gratin,  41-42  ;  buttered  crumbs, 
42  ;  escaloped,  42  ;  fuel  value  of, 
124 

Protein,  food  value  of,  2-3  ;  study 
of,  4-5 ;  in  potatoes,  40 ;  in 
cereals,  43-45 ;  in  dried  legumes, 
51  ;  in  milk,  54,  55  ;  in  eggs,  61 ; 
in  cheese,  65 ;  in  meat,  68,  69 ; 
gelatin,  87 ;  in  flour,  94  ;  in  some 
common  foods,  117  ;  fuel  value 
of,  120-121 

Prunes,  dried,  15;  stewed,  19; 
jellied,  88  ;  fuel  value  of,  124 

Raisins,  as  a  concentrated  food, 
15 ;  fuel  value  of,  124 

Rice,  composition  and  food  value 
of,  43,  45,  1 24  ;  boiled,  45 ;  escal- 
oped, 46 

Rice  pudding,  46 

Rolls,  Parker  House,  114;  cinna- 
mon, 114 

Salads,  food  value  of,  19;  dress- 
ings, 20;  vegetable,  21;  fruit, 
21  ;  potato,  42;  meat,  79 

Salmon,  escaloped,  84 


174 


A  STUDY  OF  FOODS 


Sandwiches,  cheese  and  pimento, 
66 

Saratoga  chips,  92 

Sherbet,  13 

Shortcake,  105 

Skimmed  milk,  food  value  of,  55 

Snow  pudding,  88-89 

Soups,  lentil,  52 ;  dried  pea,  52 ; 
cream  of  lima  beans,  53 ;  po- 
tato, 58-59 

Spaghetti,  composition  of,  44 

Spinach,  17;  boiled,  19 

Starch,  37-39 ;  composition  and 
food  value  of,  37  ;  in  cooking, 
38 ;  cornstarch  pudding,  38 ; 
white  sauce,  38 ;  cream  toast, 
39  ;  in  potatoes,  40  ;  in  cereals, 
43-45 ;  in  dried  legumes,  51  ; 
in  flour,  94 

Steak,  flavor,  68,  71  ;  methods  of 
cooking,  73  ;  pan-broiled  porter- 
house, 76 ;  Swiss,  77 

Sugar,  31-36;  kinds  of,  31-33; 
effect  of  heat  on  cane  sugar, 
34  ;  peanut  brittle,  34  ;  fondant, 
34-35;  chocolate  creams,  35; 
molasses  taffy,  35;  butterscotch, 
35;  fuel  value  of,  124 

Sweet  potatoes,  glazed,  19 

Tartar  sauce,  84 
Tea,  13 


Temperatures,    in   cooking,   8-9; 

baking,  101 
Toast,  cream,  39 
Tomatoes,     17 ;     canned,    26-27 ; 

with  macaroni,  46 ;  jellied,  89 ; 

fuel  value  of,  124 
Typhoid  fever  and  oysters,  83 

Water,  in  food,  2-3,  5,  11-14; 
hard  and  soft,  n  ;  safe,  11-12; 
for  lemonade,  coffee,  etc.,  12- 
14  ;  in  fruits,  1 5  ;  in  green  vege- 
tables, 17;  in  potatoes,  40;  in 
milk,  54;  in  eggs,  61 ;  in  cheese, 
65  ;  in  meat,  68  ;  in  fish,  81 

Welsh  rabbit,  66 

Veal,  pressed,  76 

Vegetables,  green,  composition 
of,  17;  canned,  17;  creamed 
onion,  19;  escaloped  cabbage, 
19 ;  glazed  sweet  potatoes,  19 ; 
spinach,  19;  in  salads,  19-21; 
preserving,  22-30;  experiments 
in  preserving,  23-24 ;  canning, 
25-27  ;  canned  corn,  25  ;  canned 
tomatoes,  26-27  ;  pickling,  28 ; 
cucumber  pickles,  28 

Yeast,  108-111,  112 


ANNOUNCEMENTS 


PURE   FOODS 

THEIR  ADULTERATION,   NUTRITIVE  VALUE, 

AND  COST 

By  JOHN  C.  OLSEN,  Professor  of  Analytical  Chemistry,  Polytechnic  Institute  of 
Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  Editor  of  Van  NostrancPs  Chemical  Annual,  etc. 


I2mo,  cloth,  2,10  pages,  illustrated,  80  cents 


'Pure  Foods  :  their  Adulteration,  Nutritive  Value,  and  Cost" 
aims  to  present,  in  language  easily  understood,  the  results  of  the 
large  amount  of  scientific  investigation  to  which  the  various  phases 
of  the  food  problems  have  been  subjected  in  recent  years. 

The  text  includes  the  chemical  composition  of  each  class  of 
foods,  the  methods  used  in  producing  the  food,  and  the  com- 
mon adulterations,  together  with  a  number  of  simple  tests  for 
the  detection  of  these.  The  directions  are  so  explicit  that  they 
may  be  carried  out  by  persons  who  have  not  been  trained  as 
chemists. 

The  nutritive  value  of  foods  being  given,  it  is  shown  how 
the  true  cost  may  be  estimated. 

There  is  a  statement  of  legal  requirements  for  pure  foods, 
and  a  list  of  references  to  literature  on  the  subject  so  that  those 
interested  may  pursue  it  still  further. 

This  volume  is  admirably  adapted  for  use  in  domestic  science 
or  chemistry  classes  where  the  chemistry  of  foods  is  studied  and 
laboratory  tests  made  for  purity.  It  will  also  furnish  excellent 
supplementary  reading  in  the  upper  grammar  grades. 

The  intelligent  consumer  of  foods  and  the  food  producer  or 
dealer  will  find  this  of  great  assistance  in  purchasing  pure  and 
nutritive  foods. 


GINN  AND   COMPANY  PUBLISHERS 


BACTERIA,    YEASTS,    AND 
MOLDS   IN  THE   HOME 

By  H.  W.  CONN 

Professor  of  Biology  in  Wesleyan  University,     izmo,  cloth, 
293  pages,  illustrated 


i 


book  contains  an  important  summary  of  the  facts  which 
have  rapidly  accumulated  in  recent  years  concerning  the 
relation  of  microorganisms  to  all  matters  connected  with 
the  home.  The  work  is  a  popular  and  not  a  scientific  discussion, 
free  from  many  technical  terms,  and  admirably  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  the  housewife,  the  student  of  domestic  science,  and  all 
others  interested  in  home  economics. 

Molds,  which  are  the  cause  of  mildew,  the  spoiling  of  many 
foods,  and  the  decay  of  fruits  ;  yeasts,  which  are  the  foundation 
of  fermentation  in  the  raising  of  bread  ;  and  bacteria,  which  cause 
food  to  spoil,  meat  to  decay,  and  contagious  diseases  to  spread,  — 
all  these  phenomena  which  are  of  the  most  vital  importance  are 
presented  in  an  interesting  and  helpful  manner.  The  author 
explains  the  various  actions  of  bacteria,  and  points  out  the  sources 
of  trouble  and  the  principles  which  underlie  the  methods  to  be 
adopted  for  avoiding  their  effects.  Special  attention  is  paid  to 
the  problems  of  food  preservation  and  to  the  practical  methods 
which  can  be  used  in  the  home  for  preventing  the  distribution 
of  contagious  diseases. 

To  render  the  work  more  useful  for  classes  in  domestic  science 
there  is  added  an  appendix  containing  directions  for  a  series  of 
simple  experiments  which  will  give  to  the  student  a  practical 
knowledge  of  the  most  important  properties  of  microorganisms. 

167 

GINN    &    COMPANY    PUBLISHERS 


ELEMENTARY  APPLIED  CHEMISTRY 

By  LEWIS  B.  ALLYN,  State  Normal  School,  Westfield,  Mays. 


izmo,  cloth,  127  pages,  illustrated,  60  cents 


THIS  book  offers  practical  applications  of  chemistry  to  pres- 
ent-day civic  and  industrial  problems.  The  course  is  essentially 
that  conducted  by  the  author  in  the  Westfield  State  Normal 
School,  where  a  pure-food  campaign  has  been  made  one  of  the 
objects  of  the  course.  The  widespread  results  shown  in  the 
almost  complete  elimination  of  the  sale  of  impure  foods  in 
the  city  of  Westfield  are  matters  of  national  knowledge. 

Besides  the  work  with  food  products,  the  book  includes 
exercises  with  water,  textile  fabrics,  drugs,  soils,  and  similar 
materials.  It  gives  a  particularly  complete  analysis  of  each 
subject  and  brings  out  clearly  the  practical  relation  which 
chemistry  bears  to  everyday  matters.  The  order  of  presen- 
tation differs  radically  from  that  of  the  usual  textbook  in 
chemistry,  the  common  elements,  bases,  and  radicals  being 
taken  up  as  they  naturally  occur. 

For  supplementary  use  with  any  regular  textbook  '  '  Elemen- 
tary Applied  Chemistry  '  is  invaluable.  Teachers  of  domestic 
science  will  find  the  chapter  on  food  values  most  important, 
while  for  boards  of  health,  inspectors  of  milk,  and  all  those  inter- 
ested in  the  pure-food  problem,  the  book  has  a  special  function 
in  its  valuable  information  and  tests  relating  to  their  work. 


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TEXTBOOKS  IN 

PHYSICS  AND  CHEMISTRY 

FOR  HIGHER  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES 

PHYSICS 

Cavanagh,  Westcott,  and  Twining :    Physics  Laboratory  Manual  $0.70 

Gage:  Physical  Experiments 35 

Gage:  Physical  Laboratory  Manual  and  Notebook 35 

Gage:  Principles  of  Physics  (Revised  by  Goodspeed)    ....     1.50 

Hastings  and  Beach  :  Textbook  of  General  Physics 2.75 

Higgins  :  Lessons  in  Physics 90 

Higgins :  Simple  Experiments  in  Physics  " 35 

Hill:  Essentials  of  Physics i.io 

Ives  :  Experiments  in  Physics 50 

Miller:  Laboratory  Physics 2.00 

Millikan  :  Mechanics,  Molecular  Physics,  and  Heat 1.50 

Millikan  and  Gale:  First  Course  in  Physics  (Rev.  Ed.)  .     .     .     .     1.25 

Millikan  and  Gale  :  Laboratory  Course  in  Physics 40 

Millikan  and  Mills :  Electricity,  Sound,  and  Light 2.00 

Mills  :  Introduction  to  Thermodynamics 2.00 

Newman :  Laboratory  Exercises  in  Elementary  Physics  (in  four 

books) per  doz.     1.50 

Sabine  :  Laboratory  Course  in  Physical  Measurements  ....  1.25 
Smith,  Tower,  and  Turton  :  Manual  of  Experimental  Physics  .  .  .80 
Snyder  and  Palmer  :  One  Thousand  Problems  in  Physics  ...  .50 

Stone:  Experimental  Physics .     ...     i.oo 

Wentworth  and  Hill:  Text-Book  in  Physics  (Rev.  Ed.)  .  .  .  1.15 
Wentworth  and  Hill:  Laboratory  Exercises  (Rev.  Ed.) 25 

CHEMISTRY 

Allyn  :  Elementary  Applied  Chemistry 60 

Dennis  and  Whittelsey :  Qualitative  Analysis  (Rev.  Ed.)  .  .  .  i.oo 
McGregory :  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis  (Rev.  Ed.)  .  .  .  .  i.oo 
McPherson  and  Henderson  :  Course  in  General  Chemistry  .  .  2.25 
McPherson  and  Henderson:  Elementary  Study  of  Chemistry  .  1.25 

McPherson  and  Henderson  :  Exercises  in  Chemistry 40 

Moore  :  Logarithmic  Reduction  Tables \In  press\ 

Morse:  Exercises  in  Quantitative  Chemistry 2.00 

Olsen:  Pure  Foods:  Their  Adulteration, Nutritive  Value, and  Cost  .80 
Ostwald  and  Morse  :  Elementary  Modern  Chemistry  ....  i.oo 
Sellers:  Treatise  on  Qualitative  Analysis  (Rev.  Ed.)  ....  i.oo 

Thorp:  Inorganic  Chemical  Preparations 1.50 

Unger:  Review  Questions  and  Problems  in  Chemistry 50 

Williams  :  Chemical  Exercises 3° 

Williams:  Essentials  of  Chemistry 1.25 

Williams  :  Laboratory  Manual  of  General  Chemistry 25 

146 

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